



High School Man 

For Teachers 



W\) [J , v| {j HAND 

irjOL INSPECTOR 



h;e STAT 



BOARD OF ECU. 
OUTH CAR 

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11. L Biisaj 

Coi.VMlltA, 

1911 



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High School Manual 
For Teachers 



PREPARED BY 

WILLIAM H. HAND 

STATE HIGH SCHOOL INSPECTOR 

ON THE AUTHORITY OF 



THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 
OF SOUTH CAROLINA 



I9II 



The R. L. Bryax Company 

Columbia, S. C. 

1911 






ft 



- 






INTRODUCTORY. 

This Manual has been prepared by the State High School Inspec- 
tor on the authority of the State Board of Education. It has been 
written with the cherished hope that it may be of some service to the 
high school teachers of the State, with whom the author has found it 
pleasant to labor for the upbuilding of the schools. The size of the 
volume forbids anything like a full discussion of the many topics 
mentioned in it, and precludes the discussion of many others alto- 
gether. The aim has been to make few definite suggestions on 
each topic, then to refer the teacher to some more exhaustive trea- 
tise. The making of long lists of reference books for either teach- 
ers or students has been carefully avoided. Lengthy bibliographies 
have marred the usefulness of many an otherwise good manual. 
Any teacher has it in his reach to improve himself by a close study 
of a few well-selected books on the matter and method of teaching. 

I am glad to acknowledge the help that has been given to me by 
many teachers throughout the State. I have quoted from some of 
them liberally in places, because they had already said just what I 
wished to sav, and had said it well. W. H. H. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

The Aims of Education 5 

Educational Values 6 

Program of Studies 8 

Suggestions to Teachers 16 

English 21 

Grammar 23 

Literature 32 

Composition and Rhetoric 37 

History 42 

Greek and Roman History L9 

Mediaeval and Modern History 51 



English History 



.) ; 



American History 53 

Civics 56 

Latin 51 

Beginner's Latin 6' i 

Reading and Translating Latin 63 

Translating Latin into English ii 1 

Following the Beginner's Book 65 

Prose Composition 66 

Latin Grammar Q1 

Greek <5 S 

French and German 70 

Mathematics 72 

Arithmetic • :; 

Business Methods < s 

Algebra < s 

Plane Geometry 80 

Solid Geometry 82 

Trigonometry 83 

Science 8-1 

Physiology s,n; 

Botany s ^ 

Physical Geography 88 

Commercial Geography 90 

Physics "1 

Chemistry 95 

Agriculture !,!l 

Table of Standard Units 102 



THE AIM OF EDUCATION. 

In the evolution of human society the aim of training men and 
women to perform their parts in that society into which they are born 
is undergoing constant change. Truly, this change is very gradual 
but it is none the less constant. Consequently, there must be gradual 
but constant readjusting of educational means to educational aims. 
"The value of any means can not be determined without a knowledge 
of the end to which it is a means." In the history of education, the 
student meets nothing more interesting or instructive than the unmis- 
takable gradual changes wrought in the conceptions of the dominant 
aim in education, as expressed from time to time by those who have 
formulated contemporaneous definitions of education. 

Perhaps it would be impossible to give any laconic definition of 
education that would be at all comprehensive. For the modern 
teacher in the secondary school the following statement of the aim 
^eems to be meritorious. It is taken from Brown's The American 
High School: 

"The aim of education is the harmonious development of the 
human powers for a life of service in the State and society, with due 
regard for the peculiar needs, inclinations, and abilities of the indi- 
vidual so far as his own happiness and his social efficiency are con- 
cerned. When the individual possesses both higher and lower 
powers equally capable of development, appeal should always be 
made to the higher. The end of education is not to make all men 
alike according to some preconceived ideal of the perfect man, but, 
on the basis of his inherited powers, to raise each person to his high- 
est efficiency both as an individual and as a member of society. In 
more definite and concrete terms, this end may be said to include 
physical health and efficiency, manual skill, a large amount of infor- 
mation concerning man and nature, trained intellectual powers, an 
appreciation of the true, the good, and the beautiful, and an attitude 
of personal devotion to them, broad sympathies, and a desire and 
purpose to live the fullest possible human life both as an individual 
and as a member of society. In proportion to the degree in which a 
study contributes to these ends it may be said to have educational 
value." 



High School Manual. 



EDUCATIONAL VALUES. 

The secondary school forms perhaps the most important link in 
our American educational system. It should give tone to the ele- 
mentary school, and it must give the preparation to the material for 
the institutions of higher learning. Besides, it is called upon to give 
a large number of sturdy men and forceful women the only prepara- 
tion they are to have for intelligent citizenship, industrial efficiency, 
and social enjoyment. Naturally, an institution with so important 
a function deserves the heartiest support of the people and the mi »st 
thoughtful study of the educator. 

No bigger problem confronts the educator than that of weighing 
and determining educational values. This was once a very simple 
problem, but not so now. A few centuries ago, when the subjects 
recognized as fit material for training men for the two or three 
learned professions could be counted on the fingers of one hand, 
the problem was not difficult. All the recognized subjects could be 
taken by all pupils, hence a single curriculum was established. Thi^ 
single, narrow curriculum finally became a tradition, and no form of 
idolatry is more difficult to eradicate than that supported by the 
tradition of centuries. When new subjects began to be developed 
and organized, and to seek admission to the traditional curriculum, 
there arose a fierce conflict between the adherents to the old and the 
advocates of the new. As is usual in such cases, both sides made 
unwarranted claims for their respective groups of subjects. Out of 
the conflict came the doctrine of formal discipline, a theory which 
makes the nature and value of the content of a subject inferior to 
the mental discipline. 

There is such a thing as mental discipline, but it must be admitted 
that in all educational literature there is no more indefinite or 
ambiguous or abused term than mental discipline, unless it is the term 
culture. These two terms are the last arguments of persons defend- 
ing their pet theories. However, the question of mental discipline 
is one of too much import to be discussed in this little manual. The 
teacher is referred to Prof. Heck's Mental Discipline, a recent publi- 
cation and an excellent treatise on the subject. Perhaps the best 
single article on the subject is by Dr. Hinsdale in Volume VII T. 



High School Manual. 7 

page 128, of the Educational Review — The Dogma of Formal Dis- 
cipline. 

The report of the Committee of Ten (1893 ) did much to put this 
whole subject of educational values on a sane basis. Since the 
publication of that report educators have been studying the subject 
as never before. The notion that one subject is as valuable as any 
other subject to everybody is rejected. It follows that the notion 
that everyone to be educated must have studied certain traditional 
subjects must be rejected. President Schurman, of Cornell Uni- 
versity, goes straight to the core of the matter when he says, "Educa- 
tion is not merely a training of mental powers ; it is a process of 
nutrition ; mind grows by what it feeds on, and the mental organism, 
like the physical organism, must have suitable and appropriate 
nourishment." Every educational subject has in it certain values 
and certain functions, and to determine these values and functions is 
the educator's difficult but imperative task. Why teach it? is asked 
concerning every subject. His program of studies taxes all his 
powers, and shows at once his knowledge of educational material, his 
knowledge of the needs of his pupils, and the capacities of his 
teachers. 

The disciplinary value of any subject is largely a matter of the 
method and proficiency with which it is taught. Some of the sub- 
jects in our present program of studies are rated below par, simply 
because they are not taught long enough or well enough to reveal 
their intrinsic value. 

For a full discussion of educational values, the teacher is referred 
to Hanus' Educational Aims and Educational Values, Bagley's Edu- 
cational J 'alucs, and chapters I-IV of DeGarmo's Principles of 
Secondary Education (The Studies). 



High School Manual. 



PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 

Considerable confusion has arisen among teachers themselves 
through the indefinite uses of the terms course of study, curriculum, 
and program of studies. In this manual, the terminology recom- 
mended by the College Entrance Requirement Board is used. A 
program of studies includes all the studies offered in a given school ; 
a curriculum means the group of studies schematically arranged for 
any pupil or set of pupils ; a course of study means the quantity of 
work given in any subject of instruction, for example, the course in 
mathematics embraces algebra, plane and solid geometry, and what- 
ever other topic in mathematics might be offered. 

It is conceded by all but a few that the secondary school with but 
a single curriculum is an anarchronism. The secondary school of a 
single curriculum can not meet the needs of a people in a modern 
democracy. President Eliot well says, "The pretended democratic 
school with an inflexible program is fighting not only against nature, 
but against the interests of democratic society."' The different con 
ditions, situations, and occupations of the parents, and the various 
tastes, ambitions, opportunities, and limitations of the pupils pre- 
clude the possibility of meeting the needs of all pupils with any one 
curriculum. The time has past when the schoolmaster was the only 
one competent to judge of what is needed to educate a boy or a girl. 
The American father and mother know something of the meaning of 
education, and even the boy himself has some notions about his own 
powers and aims. Be these things as they may. the fathers and the 
mothers support the schools, and they are going to demand some 
latitude in the selection of studies. The Creator has endowed pupil> 
with varied types of mind and various aims in life, and it is worse 
than folly for the schoolmaster to undertake to remold these with his 
curriculum. Thousands of capable pupils either do not enter the 
high school or leave it before graduation, because they ask for bread 
and are given a stone. Prof. Hecker aptly remarks, "No one study 
is fitted for every mind." 

In order to meet this imperative demand for latitude in the selec- 
tion of suitable subjects, there are at least two feasible ways open to 
every school: (1) two or more parallel curricula of equal value; or 



High School Manual. 9 

(2) a single curriculum with several required subjects and some 
elective subjects. The elasticity suggested is worked out more fully 
in the paragraphs giving the details of the program of studies. 

The high school subjects are usually classified under three group 
headings — the humanities, the natural sciences, and the economic 
sciences. Any curriculum in order to be well-balanced ought to 
have some representation from each of these groups. A curriculum 
made up entirely from the humanities would not only be unbalanced 
but narrow. The same would be true of a curriculum made up 
exclusively from the natural sciences. 

After the topics have been selected for a curriculum, the articula- 
tion or arrangement of these topics becomes a problem. Shall phy- 
sics or chemistry precede? Shall plane geometry be taken up before 
the completion of algebra, or shall it follow algebra ? Where shall 
bookkeeping be placed ? A man may be a good classroom teacher, 
yet unable to construct a well-balanced or a well-articulated curricu- 
lum. One who is unfamiliar with conditions as they exist in our 
high schools would doubtless be astonished, were he to examine fifty 
programs of studies from as many schools. He would see courses 
in English without any coherence, courses in mathematics innocent 
of any suspicion of articulation, courses in history violating every 
known pedagogical law. 

The time allotments in the curriculum and in the daily schedule of 
recitations are vitally important. One loses faith in the judgment 
of a teacher who deliberately plans to give three full years, or 
twenty-seven weeks, to the study of school algebra, then brushes 
aside physical geography with three recitations a week, or fewer, 
for nine months. Some three-year high schools do not offer more 
than two years of good English, while they devote three years to 
Latin, two years to arithmetic, three to algebra, and one to geometry. 
Many three-year schools offer no science whatever, but run off after 
some high-sounding subject to tickle the fancy of patrons and pupils. 

A high school curriculum may have a clear-cut purpose, or it may 
be vague and aimless; it may be rich in the content of its subjects, 
or it may have about it every mark of poverty; it may be strong in 
its articulation and sequence of subjects, or it may be disjointed and 
scrappy; the arrangement of the work may be smooth, resembling 
a gentle ascent, or it may be irregular, resembling a rugged mountain 
side ; finally, it may be a well graduated road leading from the begin- 



10 High School Manual 

ning of the first year's work to the end of the last year's work, or it 
may be a circular path in which pupils after three or four years find 
themselves face to face with the same objects they met the first 
week in the high school. 

The following four-year program of studies was prepared by a 
committee appointed at the request of the high school teachers of the 
State at a meeting in Columbia in 1910. The committee consisted 
of E. S. Dreher. Superintendent of Columbia City Schools ; S. H. 
Edmunds, Superintendent Sumter City Schools; Frank Evans. 
Superintendent Spartanburg City Schools; O. M. Mitchell, Principal 
Rome High School ; W. K. Tate, State Supervisor Rural Elemen- 
tary Schools; and \Y. H. Hand. State High School Inspector. This 
report has been accepted by the State Board of Education as the 
basis of the high school curricula of the State. 

The subjects printed in light-face type represent the constants. 
that is, the subjects common to all the curricula ; the subjects printed 
in bold-face type represent those which differentiate the curricula. 



High School Manual. 



11 



FOUR-YEAR PROGRAM OF STUDIES. 



CLASSICAL,* 

I. Periods 

Arithmetic 3 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram., 3; Lit.. 2 5 

History — Greece & Rome 5 

Latin • 5 



SCIENTIFIC. 

I. Periods 

Arithmetic 3 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram., 3; Lit., 2 5 

History — Greece & Rome 5 

Physiology or Botany 5 



23 



II. 



Arithmetid • 2 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram., 2; Lit., 3 5 

History — Medieval & Mod 5 

Latin 5 



23 



ii. 



Arithmetic 2 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram.. 2; Lit., 3 5 

History — Med. & Mod 5 

Physical Geography 5 



22 
III. 

English — Comp. & Rhet., 3; 

Lit., 2 5 

History — English 4 

Geometry — Plane 5 

Latin 5 

Greek 4 



22 
III. 

English — Comp. & Rhet.. 3; 

Lit.. 2 5 

History — English 4 

Geometry — Plane 5 

Physics 5 

(Elective) 4 



23 
IV. 

English — Lit., 3: Adv. Gram., 2.. 5 

History — American & Civics.... 5 
Sol. Geom.. 5 Mos.: Adv. Alg., 

4 mos 5 

Latin 5 

Greek 4 



23 
IV. 

English — Lit.. 3: Adv. Gram., 2.. 5 
History — American & Civics.... 5 
Sol. Geom.. 5 mos.; Adv. Alg., 

4 mos 5 

Chemistry 5 

(Elective) 4 



24 



24 



:;< For Modern Language curriculum substitute French or German t"< it- 
Greek in third and fourth years. 

|"See minority report of Mr. Evans under the discussion of arithmetic. 



12 



High School Manual. 



COMMERCIAL. 

I. Periods 

Arithmetic 3 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram., 3: Lit., 2 5 

History — Greece & Rome 5 

Physiology or Botany 5 

23 
II. 

Commercial Arithmetic 5 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram., 2; Lit., 3 5 

History — Med. and Mod 5 

(Elective) 2 



22 



AGRICULTURAL. 

I. Periods 

Arithmetic 3 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram., 3; Lit., 2 5 

History — Greece & Rome 5 

Botany & School Gardening 5 

23 
II. 

Farm Arithmetic & Farm Ac- 
counts 4 

Algebra 5 

English — Gram., 2: Lit., 3 5 

History — Med. and Mod 5 

Physiology, Hygiene & Sanita- 
tion 3 



III. 

English — Comp. & Rhet.. 3; 

Lit., 2 5 

History — English 4 

Geometry — Plane 5 

Com. Geog. & Com. Law 5 

Stenography & Typewriting 4 



22 
III. 

English — Comp. & Rhet., 3; 

Lit.. 2 5 

History — English 4 

Geometry — Plane 5 

Physics (adapted to farm) 5 

Animal Industry & Dairying... 4 



23 
IV. 

English — Lit.. 3: Adv. Gram., 2.. 5 

History — -Amer. & Civics 5 

Stenography & Typewriting 4 

Bookkeeping 5 

Elementary Economics 5 



23 
IV. 

English — Lit., 3: Adv. Gram., 2.. 5 

History — Amer. & Civics 5 

Chemistry (adapted to farm) .... 5 

Soils, Fertility, Cultivation 5 

(Elective) 4 



24 



24 



The above program of studies provides for five curricula — class- 
ical, modern language, scientific, commercial, and agricultural. It 
will be noted that the English, history, algebra, and plane geometrv 
are identical in all five. Each curriculum calls for 92 recitations a 

week. 



High School Manual. 13 

Six 45-minute recitation periods and 30 minutes for one or two 
recesses consume all the time between 9 o'clock a. m. and 2 o'clock 
p. m. Between 9 o'clock a. m. and 3 :30 p. m. seven 45-minute reci- 
tation periods and one and one-fourth hours for lunch and recess 
can be arranged. 

With seven periods a day, three teachers could handle any one of 
the above curricula,' and have jointly 13 open periods a week. The 
classical curriculum and the modern language curriculum combined 
call for 102 recitation periods a week. Allowing but 3 open periods 
a week, three teachers could handle both these curricula. This, how- 
ever, would be found very heavy work. 

The classical curriculum and the required subjects in the scientific 
curriculum combined require 112 recitations a week. With seven 
periods a day, four teachers could handle both curricula, and have 
jointly 28 open periods ; or, with six periods a day, four teachers 
could handle both curricula, and have 8 open periods. The pupils 
of the third and fourth years might elect Latin or Greek, already 
provided for in the classical curriculum, thus reducing the maximum 
required recitation periods. 

The classical, modern language, and scientific curricula combined 
call for 130 periods a week. With seven periods a day, four teach- 
ers could handle the three curricula, and have jointly 10 open 
periods. 

All these calculations are based upon the supposition that none of 
the classes will be large enough to require more than one section in 
any subject. 

If the pupils have come to the high school prepared to do high 
school work, and are given good teaching with 45-minute periods, it 
is altogether possible for a class pursuing the classical, modern lan- 
guage, or scientific curriculum to make a credit of over 15 standard 
units. 



14 High School Manual. 

THREE-YEAR PROGRAM. 

(Seven 45-Minute Recitation Periods a Day.) 

I. Periods 

Arithmetic 3 

Algebra 5 

English — Grammar, 3; Literature. 2 5 

History — Greece & Rome 5 

Latin ) 

Physiology V (elect one) 5 

Botany } 

23 
II. 

Arithmetic 2 

Algebra 5 

English — Grammar, 2: Literature. 3 5 

History — English 4 

Latin \ 

Physical Geography .... \ (elect one) 5 

Commercial Geography. ) 

21 
III. 

English— Comp. & Rhet., 3: lit.. 2 5 

History — American & Civics 5 

Geometry — Plane 5 

Latin / , , . _ 

ou . (elect one) 5 

Physics \ 

20 

This program provides for a minimum of 64 recitations a week. 
With seven periods a day. two teachers can handle it, and have 
jointly 6 open periods a week. A school might offer six subjects in 
the first year, six in the second, and five in the third, thus providing 
two curricula. In that case the two would call for 79 period- a 
week. Two teachers with the half time of a third teacher could 
easilv handle both. 



High School Manual. 15 

ONE-TEACHER PROGRAM. 

(Ten 30-Minute Recitation Periods a Day.) 

I. Periods 

Arithmetic 3 

Algebra 5 

English — Grammar. 3: Literature. 2 5 

History — Greece & Rome 5 

Latin ) 

Physiology ^ ' " ' 

23 
II. 

Arithmetic 2 

Algebra 5 

English — Grammar. 2; Literature. 3 5 

History — American & Civics 5 

Latin ; 

Physical Geography . . . . \ 

22 

This program provides for 5 open periods. Every teacher in 
such a school will find need of even more than these in which to 
bring up pupils deficient in one or more subjects. With 30-minute 
periods, even where the school runs nine months, it would be useless 
for the teacher to hope to cover the same ground covered in schools 
with 45-minute periods. In a school running but eight months, even 
less should be attempted. It will be found difficult to get beyond 
quadratics in algebra in the two years. Collar & Darnell's First 
Year Latin, including the Selections for Reading, will give the class 
good work. Not all the text can be done in the history of either 
year, nor all the physical geography, if the work is properly done. 



16 High School Manual. 



SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

1. Whether you have a single curriculum, with or without elect- 
ives, or several curricula, do not overcrowd your pupils with work. 
The bane of our schools is attempting to do too many things at one 
time. It ought to be evident that no high school class, under any 
consideration, ought to carry more than five subjects at a time. The 
drift of opinion among thoughtful educators is decidedly toward 
four subjects at a time in the high school. A few subjects well 
distributed and pursued vigorously will give far better results than 
a dissipation of time and energy over a large number of subjects 
half-taught and half-learned. 

2. Whatever the nature of your program of studies, make some 
provision for taking care alike of the normal pupil, the brilliant 
pupil, and the slow pupil unable to keep up with a full allotment of 
subjects. This ought to be no difficult task. Suppose you have a 
single three-year curriculum with four required subjects and one 
elective or one optional subject. In either case let the slow pupil 
take each year one subject fewer than the minimum requirement 
until he works up the curriculum. Under the same plan, let the 
brilliant pupil take one subject more than the minimum requirement. 
Do not be afraid of having some pupils doing more work than 
others; some are more capable than others. Besides, it is unjust to 
be dragging the slower pupils over work too rapidly, and at the same 
time holding back the normal pupils and dulling the brighter ones. 

3. Do not undertake the impossible, thinking that you can do what 
nobody else has succeeded in doing. Not fewer than three teachers 
can properly handle a single curriculum of four years. It is barely 
possible for two teachers to handle a curriculum of three years. 
One teacher can not properly handle more than a single curriculum 
of two years. If you have any doubt about the accuracy of these 
statements, do a little calculating and be convinced. 

4. Some teachers are capable of doing far more effective work 
than others, but it is presumption for one teacher to undertake to 
accomplish as much work in a given time as two teachers can accom- 
plish, or for two teachers to attempt the work of three teachers. Do 
not try to make people believe that you have some patented process 



High School Manual. IT 

by which you can accomplish more than ordinary mortals. Teachers 
and schools arrogating to themselves extravagant superiority are 
usually heavily discounted by well-informed people. 

5. Do not attempt to make yourself or your pupils believe that 
you are gaining anything when you carry two subjects at a time and 
alternate the recitation?, instead of carrying one at a time with daily 
recitations. Between two given points there is no shorter cut than 
a straight line. You may be able to have two classes at work at the 
same time. Indeed, the teacher's task is to have all classes profitably 
at work all the time, but do not imagine that you can teach two 
classes at the same time. The most competent teachers are fully 
satisfied with being able to teach one class at a time. A carpenter 
who would claim to be able to bore holes and to push a plane at the 
same time would be regarded as a freak rather than a finished work- 
man. 

6. Remember that there is a limit to the endurance of teachers as 
well as of pupils. A fatigued brain refuses to be clear and alert, and 
teachers are not steam engines. No high school teacher can do 
high-class recitation work continuously for five hours without some 
relief. It is exceedingly unfortunate to be compelled to keep a 
teacher on scheduled recitations every period in the day. A change 
from the tension of the recitation to passing among pupils and direct- 
ing their work will give relief. 

7. I am convinced that our school day is projected on wrong prin- 
ciples. We open at 8 :30 or 9 o'clock and run at high tension until 
about 2 o'clock, with not more than 30 minutes for one or two 
recesses. By the hour of closing everybody is exhausted, nervous, 
and irritable. It would be far better for both teachers and pupils to 
make the school day longer and to give more time for relaxation and 
recuperation. The actual teaching hours need not be lengthened 
more than perhaps a half hour, but the work of the day would be 
better distributed, the work less fatiguing, and the character of it 
improved, because more of it would be done under the immediate 
guidance of the teacher. A school day from 9 o'clock until 3 :30 
with an hour and a quarter for lunch and recuperation would add 
much to the health and comfort of the pupils. With entirely good 
reason, parents have long complained that they must do at least a 
good part of the teaching of their children, while the teachers at 
school hear the recitations. The corrective for all this is simple: 



18 High School Manual. 

Make the school day longer, let the teachers do the teaching, and 
make the lunch hour at home meet the needs of the pupils. The chil- 
dren are due some consideration at home as well as at school. 

8. Make a workable daily schedule and follow it. If the one you 
have is not a good one, make one that is good, then follow it. A 
good school schedule is as necessary as a good railroad schedule, 
and for the same reason — a protection against wrecks. For any 
teacher to conduct his recitations in a haphazard order, or in an 
indefinite period of time, is sure to end in confusion, if not failure. 

9. In a high school of two or more teachers. 45-minute recitation 
periods are recommended. Of course, a few of the recitations may 
require less time, but it should be remembered that the drill work on 
the recitation is what counts for most in high school teaching. In 
a one-teacher high school, 30-minute recitations are recommended 
wherever possible. With very small classes it may be necessary to 
reduce a few of the recitations to shorter time. Anything less than 
20 minutes is not worth while. Again, remember that one teacher 
can not hope to do the work of two, or to do in 30 minutes what 
another teacher in similar circumstances does in 45 minutes. 

10. Teachers are urged not to advance pupils to the high school 
before they are prepared to do the work there. To do so is an 
injustice to the pupils, and a source of constant annoyance to the 
teacher and to the pupils who are prepared. Premature promo- 
tion is wholly inexcusable where the high school principal is also 
supervising principal of the common school. 

11. No matter how many curricula the school may offer, or how 
well the school may be equipped in the way of conveniences, the 
effectiveness of the school depends chiefly upon the efficiency of 
its teachers. To teach well the teacher must first be more than 
a pedagog. In addition, he must know both his subject and his 
pupil. Unless he can teach his subject without an open book con- 
stantly in his hand, he will fail ; and unless he knows his pupil and 
how to bring him to the subject as well as to bring the subject to 
the pupil, success is doubtful. The teacher's business is to reduce 
the subject and the learner to a common denominator, so to speak. 

12. It is utterly useless for a dull, phlegmatic teacher, without 
a particle of genuine enthusiasm, to hope to inspire pupils with any 
genuine zeal for their work. When a teacher complains that an 
entire class is lacking in spirit and doing no work, he is giving 



High School Manual. 19 

himself a very poor recommendation. Whose business is it to 
discover the cause of the trouble and a remedy? Whose business 
is it to inspire pupils? On the other hand, do not coddle and cajole 
pupils into spasmodic spirts at study, then imagine that you are 
giving them any real inspiration. Enthusiasm to be permanent must 
be real. High school pupils generally know when they are making 
substantial headway in their work. The late Dr. Carlisle said that 
a class of ideal students might find themselves sadly in need of an 
ideal teacher. 

13. In high school work it is a saving of time and energy to 
divide the work among the teachers by subjects instead of by grades. 
Any teacher can better handle two or three subjects than the sub- 
jects of an entire grade. A teacher may be strong in some subjects 
but weak in others. Give each teacher such subjects as he is best 
equipped to teach. The teaching itself will be better correlated. 
To illustrate, where the English of the entire high school is taught 
by one teacher there will certainly be more continuity in the work, 
than where it is taught by different teachers. However, there is one 
danger to be avoided — that of overworking pupils because each 
teacher over-emphasizes his particular subject. 

14. Not a few pedagogical crimes are committed in the name of 
thoroughness. Do not wear a subject threadbare by droning over 
it to the disgust of the pupils. On the other hand, do not skim 
through a subject touching it in high places, with the understanding 
that it is to be reviewed. Pupils soon come to expect all subjects 
to be reviewed, and never take any study seriously. To go over 
any book or subject several times invites the habit of careless study. 
Train the pupils to master a subject as they go. and to make use of 
it when they have learned it. Let them understand that they are 
expected to do a thing thoroughly, if the thing is worth doing 
at all. 

15. Teachers are urged to shun all manner of crotchets. Many 
a man has mistaken a crotchet for genius. Do not subject yourself 
to being regarded as a "spelling crank," or an "arithmetic crank," 
or a "history hobby-rider," or a faddist of any kind. Any teacher 
loses force and impairs his usefulness whenever he loses his balance 
and becomes a monomaniac. Nothing becomes a teacher better 
than poise. 



20 High School Manual. 

16. Do not permit yourself to get into a rut. Do not conclude 
that the last word has been uttered on any subject. Keep your 
eyes open, your mind open, and your heart warm. By so doing, 
you will see more clearly, think more vigorously, and feel more 
sympathetically. 

Helpful Books. 

Among the books helpful to high school principals and teachers 
in the organization and administration of their work are these: 

Report of the Committee of Ten. American Book Co. $0.30. 

Brown's The American High School. Macmillan. $1.40. 

Hollister's High School Administration. Heath. 

DeGarmo's Principles of Secondary Education. Macmillan. 
$1.25. 

Davenport's Education for Efficiency. Heath. $0.80. 

Heck's Mental Discipline. John Lane. 

Ruediger's The Principles of Education. Houghton, Mifflin Co. 



High School Manual. 21 



ENGLISH. 



It would seem scarcely necessary to offer any argument for the 
diligent and prolonged study of English in the secondary schools 
of America. Yet, a respectable number of reputable teachers have 
long insisted on teaching the principles of English through some 
foreign language, often through a dead language. Not a few others 
would leave pupils to absorb vicariously a knowledge of English 
from other school subjects. However, the value of a painstaking 
study of the mother-speech has come to be generally recognized 
among all thoughtful people. 

Perhaps no other high school subject is at once so rich in content 
and disciplinary value. Much of the world's best thought and 
richest experiences is preserved in the language of English-speaking 
peoples. The treasures of history, biography, science, philosophy, 
art, and pure literature await the diligence of the student of English. 
Richness of vocabulary, variety of diction, and flexibility of syntax 
combine to make the study of English inferior to that of no other 
language as a disciplinary subject. Prof. F. C. Woodward boldly 
asserts that "English asks no odds of the classics, even in a com- 
parison of respective disciplinary values." The growth, develop- 
ment, and adaptability of the English language are little less than 
marvelous. English has not hesitated to lay tribute upon the best 
to be found in both ancient and modern languages, and has made 
possibly the nearest approach to a world language. 

It is not to be denied that there are some difficulties in teaching 
English, and that it is taught less satisfactorily than most other high 
school subjects. A living language must be a growing one — con- 
tinually taking on new words, new idioms, and new adaptations ; at 
the same time it is continually casting off what has become obsolete. 
Therefore, a living language presents some difficulties not found in 
teaching a dead language, fixed in its vocabulary and syntax. Again, 
a language of few inflections can not be taught in the same way in 
which a highly inflected language may be taught. Just here has 
been met one of the most serious difficulties, but it is being rapidly 
overcome by well-trained teachers. To these inherent difficulties 
in teaching English, must be added the indefinite aim that marks 



22 High School Manual. 

the work of many teachers. Most teachers do not exhibit a clear- 
cut and well-defined purpose in teaching it. Often the work of a 
given day or week shows no organic relation to that of the entire 
year, and the work of a given year lacks articulation with the entire 
course. The secondary importance attached to the subject itself is 
largely responsible for the delay in the development of methods of 
teaching it. The teaching of a vernacular is further hindered by the 
consciousness on the part of both teacher and pupil that in some way 
everyone can manage to make himself understood by his fellows. 
After all, the teacher of English oftenest meets his Waterloo in 
attempting to overcome the slang of the street, the colloquialisms 
of the home, and the barbarisms of the newspapers with such 
weapons as grammar, rhetoric, and handbooks of literature. 

In chapter II of Chubb's The Teaching of English, the author 
discusses some of the difficulties besetting the schools in teaching 
English. In that discusssion he makes the following pointed obser- 
vations : 

''The fundamental fact to be borne in mind in this connection 
is that good speech is a habit, a point of social manners. It is, 
we urge, too much to expect that the habits enforced for a few 
hours daily in the schoolroom (Saturdays and Sundays and holidays 
and long vacations excepted) shall prevail against contrary influ- 
ences affecting the child during the greater part of his daily life. 
Why is it that the average English or German or French child 
speaks and writes his native tongue more correctly and pleasantly 
than the average American child? The principal (though not the 
only) reason is to be found, not in the better and more laborious 
teaching in the schools, but in the higher standard of social manners. 
We lack linguistic conscience and linguistic pride in this country. 
We do not attach to illiteracy the stigma that attaches to it abroad — 
a stigma that money, dress, ostentation, can not atone for. Until 
with us also to be a gentleman is, as a first essential, to use gentle 
speech, we shall not cure, we shall but cauterize, illiteracy. Hence 
it is that, viewed in its large aspects, the problem of illiteracy is not 
so much a school problem as a problem of American civilization."' 



High School Manual. 23 

GRAMMAR. 

Around no other subject have more unprofitable discussions clus- 
tered than around English grammar. One set of controversialist^ 
has claimed for grammar almost everything; another set has 
inveighed against it ; still another set has declared that the English 
language has no grammar. Lindley Murray defined grammar as 
teaching the "art of speaking and writing the English language with 
propriety." Grammar came to be looked upon as the panacea for 
linguistic ills ; pupils were set to work memorizing abstract defini- 
tions, learning rules not applicable to English at all, and devoting 
much time to parsing page after page of Paradise Lost. After all, 
the results were sadly disappointing. What was to be expected 
took place, a reaction came. Prof. Baker, of Columbia University, 
puts the matter forcefully. He says : 

"There was for many years a reaction against the study of Eng- 
lish grammar. This reaction seems to have been the result of 
several causes: (1) The instruction was begun too early, and was 
therefore both meaningless and over-difficult; (2) The treatment 
was made mechanical to the point of degenerating into mere rote- 
work; (3) There was a growing recognition that much of the sub- 
ject was not in reality English grammar at all, but Latin grammar 
badly fitted to the English; (4) The claim commonly made for the 
study, that it led to the correct use of English, was entirely contra- 
dicted by facts, since many good students of grammar used bad 
English, and many who knew no grammar used good English." 

The reaction against grammar was justifiable, and out of the con- 
flict have come a clearer conception of the aim of grammar, a better 
agreement as to its place in the curriculum, the evolution of better 
methods of teaching it, and the appearance of an improved type of 
textbook. The most important of these is the better defined aim, 
important in itself and in determining the other three. This clearer 
conception of the aim of grammar has strengthened its claim to an 
important place in the curriculum. To be sure, "We no longer 
attempt to teach correctness of expression by means of grammar," 
but a knowledge of grammar enables the student to test the accuracy 
of his own speech and to recognize correct speech anywhere. Mr. 
Chubb thus summarizes the present conception of the aim : 

(1) We have finally abandoned the old view, which regarded 
grammar as the art of correct speaking and writing, in favor of the 



24 High School Manual. 

veiw that grammar is the science underlying that art, — a knowledge 
of which aids the art, and is involved in the conscious elaboration of 
its principles and technique. An art, however, is taught by prac- 
tice ; and the main pedagogical factor in it is imitation. 

(2) We are freeing ourselves from the tyranny of Latin models, 
and are substituting a grammar that deals simply with the actual 
facts of the English tongue, and recognizes how widely it differs 
from a highly inflected tongue like Latin. 

(3) We have come to recognize the necessity of following a 
different method, for insuring a conscious mastery of our native 
tongue, from that employed in mastering a foreign tongue. In the 
one case the method must be mainly inductive and analytic ; in the 
other, mainly deductive and synthetic. In the one case we are 
systematizing and rationalizing the data in our possession; in the 
other, using the rules that are the outcome of systematization, as 
short cuts to the facts. 

The business of grammar is to record standard usage, but not to 
dictate usage. The systematized data — the forms, inflections, syntax, 
sentence-structure, and word-order — constitute a court of appeal, 
so to speak, to the student in determining standard usage. 

At present elementary grammar is begun early in the grades. By 
the time the student has reached the high school, he has become 
fairly familiar with the simpler terminology of grammar, with most 
of the forms, and with the analysis of simple sentences. In this 
connection, Mr. Chubb makes this happy statement : "There is no 
apocalyptic moment when the child emerges into the sphere of gram- 
matical consciousness. He begins to be a grammarian just as soon 
as he begins to deal with language in a reflective, analytical manner." 

It would be difficult to undertake to say just how much grammar 
the student should have on entering the high school. On pages 
150 and 151 of Carpenter, Baker & Scott's The Teaching of English, 
and on pages 225-232 of Chubb's The Teaching of English, are found 
rather full and specific suggestions as to the quantity and character 
of the grammar work to be done in the elementary school. The 
teacher must remember that in both these books eight years are 
given to the elementary school course. The teachers of South Caro- 
lina can not hope to do in seven years what the teachers of other 
places accomplish in eight years. 



High School Manual. 25 

For the English grammar work in the high school a few sugges- 
tions are offered : 

1. Do not play with the subject in a merely superficial way, but 
attack it with zeal, vigor, and determination. Nothing short of 
unceasing and well directed efforts will give satisfactory results. I 
can offer here nothing better than a quotation from Dr. H. N. 
Snyder: "I believe that there must be an unremitting drill in theo- 
retical and practical grammar. I count the disrepute into which 
grammatical drill has fallen in our secondary schools a distinct loss, 
for which superficial flower-peeping and nature-faking are far from 
being compensatory absorptions of the time of the pupil." 

2. A total of not less than one year's work, with daily recitations 
of 45 minutes each, should be given to a rigorous study of high 
school grammar. Less than a year given to a text like Buehler's 
Modem English Grammar, one of the State adopted high school 
books, is wholly inadequate. As indicated in the program of studies 
in this manual, it is thought better to let the study of grammar 
extend over two years, with fewer than daily recitations, than to 
confine it to one year. Besides, grammar study should never pro- 
ceed alone. It should never be divorced from the study of composi- 
tion and literature. 

3. Part I and chapters I and II of Part II of Buehler's Grammar 
furnish ample material for the work of one year of nine months, 
with three recitations a week. The remainder of Part II furnishes 
enough work for the second year, with two recitations a week. 
Schools running less than nine months a year can not do effective 
work and cover the book in the manner just outlined. Nor can 
schools with 20-minute, or even 30-minute, periods hope to do good 
work and cover the text in nine months. 

4. Part I of Buehler's Grammar deals exclusively with the Sen- 
tence ; Part II deals with the Parts of Speech. It will be noted 
that this is the same order followed in the preceding book, Kinard & 
Withers' The English Language, Book Tivo. Dr. Patterson Ward- 
law says, "Grammar is essentially the study (1) of the thought of 
the sentence (analysis), and (2) of the means used to convey that 
thought (parsing and inflection). The emphasis due to any piece 
of grammar depends upon how much it helps towards these two 
ends. Analysis, then, is the condition of all the rest. Let it be 
tJwught-ana\ys'\s. Since the purpose of the sentence is to express 



26 High School Manual. 

thought, the sole business of analysis is to discover how each part 
contributes to that end." 

5. In the analysis of the sentence, no more helpful guide to the 
teacher can be suggested than Dalgleish's Grammatical Analysis. 
The method is very simple yet severely logical, and the illustrative 
sentences are excellent. Dr. Edward S. Joynes has published a 
helpful pamphlet entitled Notes of Lectures on the Parts of Speech 
in English and the Study of EnglisJi Grammar. On pages 51 and 
52 of this pamphlet, he gives a simple but comprehensive scheme for 
analysis and parsing. 

6. In analyzing sentences, drill students on the co-ordinate and 
subordinate relations of clauses. Students often fail to see that two 
clauses each may be subordinate to a third clause and at the same 
time co-ordinate with each other. Greater still is the difficulty in 
seeing how a clause may be subordinate to one itself subordinate to a 
third clause. Such a failure on the part of the student frequently 
renders a sentence meaningless to him, or he gets an erroneous mean- 
ing from it. 

7. Terminology in grammar is no insignificant matter to the young 
student. To find the same thing called by two terms, or to find the 
same term applied to two different things, is, to say the least, an 
unnecessary burden to the student. Many a high school student i< 
in hopeless confusion over the uses of such terms as — - 

principal clause, principal sentence, independent clause, independ- 
ent sentence ; 

dependent clause, dependent sentence, subordinate clause, subordi- 
nate sentence, substantive clause, attributive clause. 

Dr. Reed Smith has kindly prepared for this manual the excellent 
note and 

Table of Differing Usage in Grammatical Nomenclature 

in 
Kinard & Withers' The English Language, Book II ; 
Buehler's A Modern English Grammar; 
Setzler's An Introduction to Advanced English Syntax. 

Both in Europe and America there has recently come about a 
wide-spread sense of the need for harmonizing and unifying the 
varying systems of grammatical nomenclature. In France, as the 
result of four years' work by a French Committee of Fifteen, the 



High School Manual. 2"\ 

Minister of Public Instruction issued September 28, 1910, an official 
Nezv Grammatical A T omenclature. An English Joint Committee 
upon Grammatical Terminology, appointed in October, 1908, 
reported in 1910 upon a terminology for English, German, French, 
Latin, and Greek. In May, 1910, a paper on Simplification of 
Grammatical Terminology was presented before the Modern Philo- 
logical Association of Germany at Zurich. In this country Profes- 
sor William Gardner Hale, of Chicago University, and Professor C. 
R. Rounds, of the State Normal School in Whitewater, Wisconsin, 
have produced articles respectively upon The Waste Involved in the 
Use of a Contacting Terminology in School Grammars of Various 
Languages and The Varying Systems of Nomenclature in Use in 
our Texts in English Grammar. 

In a more recent article (The Harmonizing of Grammatical 
Nomenclature, with Especial Reference to Mood-Syntax. Publica- 
tions of the Modern Language Association of America, June, 1911, 
pp. 380, 381.) Professor Hale writes as follows of the situation in 
America : 

"The present state of affairs, at any rate, is bad. ... So great a 
variation of terminology has no where else come into existence as in 
the grammar of our mother tongue. The result is confusing to the 
student as he changes books in passing from year to year, or perhaps 
from school to school. It is confusing even to the teacher, since he 
often has to deal with a number of students trained to a different 
terminology from that of the rest of the class, or even to change his 
own terminology as one publishing house after another gets the 
upper hand in the struggle for the sale of books." 

The condition of affairs in South Carolina, while no worse than 
elsewhere, is an example of the situation described by Professor 
Hale. The three textbooks in English grammar and syntax adopted 
by the South Carolina Board of Education are The English Lan- 
guage, Kinard & Withers; A Modern English Grammar. Buehler; 
An Introduction to Advanced English. Syntax, Setzler. The termi- 
nologies of these books certainly differ no more, perhaps less, than 
those of average grammars. Enough differences do exist, however, 
to warrant calling attention to them. The following table of vary- 
ing usages in grammatical nomenclature is accordingly offered as an 
aid to South Carolina teachers of grammar. 



28 



High School Manual. 



Differences are alone noted. Figures refer to pages. Citations 
from The English Language, Kinard & Withers, are from Book 

Two. 

THE SENTENCE. 



Kinard & Withers. 

Declarative Sentence (2). 

Noun Clause (S5ff). 

A sentence that contains two or 
more principal clauses is called a 
compound sentence. 

Any member of a compound 
sentence may contain one or more 
subordinate clauses. (58.) 



Buehler. 

Assertive Sentence (18). 

Substantive Clause (84ff). 

A sentence consisting of several 
independent or co-ordinate sen- 
tences joined together is called a 
compound sentence. The inde- 
pendent sentences joined together 
may themselves be complex. (98.) 



THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Kinard & Withers. 

Nouns 
Pronouns 
Verbs 
Adjectives 
Adverbs 
Prepositions 
Conjunctions 
Interjections 
(19) 



Kinard & Withers. 

Subjective Complement 
(39, 78) 



Nominative of Address 
(78) 

Adverbial Objective 
(82) 



Indirect Object 
(84) 



Buehler. 

Nouns 
Pronouns 
Adjectives 
Articles 
Verbs 
Adverbs 
Prepositions 
Conjunctions 
Interjections 
(138) 

NOUNS. 
Buehler. 

Attribute Complement 

(50, 166) 
("Often called Predi- 
cate noun or predicate 
nominative") 
Vocative ("Often 
called nominative of 
address") (166) 
A d v e r b ial Modifier 
("Often called Ad- 
verbial objective") 
(166) 

Indirect Object 
(166) 



Setzler. 

Nouns 

Pronouns 

Verbs 

Adjectives 

Adverbs 

Prepositions 

Conjunctions 

Expletives 

Interjections 

(15-17) 



Setzler. 

Appositive to Subject 

(58) 
("or attribute comple- 
ment or predicate nom- 
inative") 

Nominative of Direct 
Address. (58) 

Objective Case as the 
measure of time, space, 
quantity, or number 
(or adverbial objective) 

(62, 63) 
Dative Case (case of 
indirect object) (60) 



High School Manual. 



89 



It Grammatical Sub- 
ject (92) 

I Personal 

II Interrogative 

III Relative 

IV Adjective 

1 Demonstrative 

2 Indefinite 

(87ff) 
My ] 

Our | Posses sive 
Your (• Case 
Her | (89, 89) 
Their J 



PRONOUNS. 

It Expletive 

(28, 176) 

I Personal 

II Demonstrative 

III Interrogative 

IV Relative 

V Indefinite 

(171ff) 

Possessive Case 
(172-175) 



ADJECTIVES. 



Kinard & Withers. Buehler. 

Subjective Complement Attribute Complement 

(41) (50) 

I Descriptive I Descriptive 



II Limiting 

1 Numeral 

2 Demonstrative 

3 Interrogative 

4 Indefinite 

(115) 



II Limiting 
A Numeral 
B Pronomial 

1 Demonstrative 

2 Interrogative 

3 Indefinite 

(207) 



It Expletive 
(150) 

I Personal 

II Relative 

III Interrogative 

IV Demonstrative 

V Distributive 

VI Reciprocal 

VII Numeral 

VIII Indefinite (28) 
Possessive Adjectives 

(32, 68 note) 



Setzler. 

Predicate Adjective 
(147) 

I Quality 

1 Participial 

2 Non-Participial 

II Non-Quality 

1 Quantity 

2 Numeral 

3 Pronomial 

(a) Possessive 

(b) Relative 

(c) Interrogative 

(d) Demonstrative 

(e) Distributive 

(f) Indefinite 

(30ff) 



High School Manual. 



VERBS. 

Present (he writes) Present (232) Present-Simple 

(126) 

Past (he wrote) (126) Past (232) 

Future (he will write) Future (233) 

(130) 

Present perfect (he has Present Perfect (234) Present-Perfect 
written) (131) 

Past Perfect (he had Past Perfect 
written) (131) (234) 

Future Perfect (he will Future Perfect 
have written) (131) (234) 

Pre sent Progressive Present Progressive 
(he is writing) (140) (235) 

Past Progressive (he Past Progressive 
was writing) (140) (235) 

Future Progressive (he Future Progressive 
will be writing) (140) (235) 

Indicative Mode Indicative Mode 

Subjunctive Mode Subjunctive Mode 



Past-Simple 
Future-Simple 



Past-Perfect 

Future-Perfect 

Present-Imperfect 
Past-Imperfect 
Future-Imperfect 
(92) 



Imperative Mode 
(133) 

Infinitive in -ing 
(147) 



Present (writing) 
Past (written) 



Imperative Mode 

(247) 
Infinitive in -ing 
(129, 258) 



Indicative Mood (112) 
S u b j u nctive Mood 
(112ff) 

Imperative Mood (131) 



Infinitive .Mood (132) 
Participial Mood (135) 
Gerundial Infinitive or 
Gerund (134) 



PARTICIPIAL TENSES. 



Present 
Past 



Perfect (having writ- Perfect 

ten) (153) (263) 

ADVERBS. 



Imperfect 

Simple 

Perfect 



(136) 



There introductory 
Adverb (172) 



Co-ordinating 
Subordinating 



Expletive 

(29) 

CONJUNCTION. 

Co-ordinating 
Subordinating 



Expletive 



(150) 



Co-ordinate 
Subordinate 



(179) (284) (41) 

S. Do not confine your work in analysis to the sentences given in 
the text. Students should feel that their grammar work is actually 
reaching out beyond the textbook. Besides, after any text has been 
in use in a school more than a year or two, most of the difficult 



Hich School Manual. 31 

places have been annotated by the pupils of the preceding classes. 
Instead of looking to the text for all your illustrative sentences, 
gather some of the best from the other texts used by the class. The 
literature, the history, and the arithmetic texts will furnish some 
excellent material. The interpretation of a sentence in history or a 
problem in arithmetic is simply getting at the logic of it — the gram- 
mar of the thing. 

( J. To give false syntax to pupils to correct in order to teach them 
correct syntax is of more than doubtful wisdom. At best, most 
students are already too familiar with false syntax. To hope to 
teach good English to students by setting them to correct bad Eng- 
lish is but little better than to expect to teach men sobriety by intoxi- 
cating them occasionally. Moreover, when the average student is 
asked to correct sentences, he makes his corrections by making 
changes. This suggestion has no reference to bad diction uncon- 
sciously used by the student. Because he is unconscious of his 
errors, he must be made conscious of them and have the corrections 
constantly kept before him, until he forms correct habits of speech. 

10. Do not take fright at a diagram ; on the other hand, be careful 
not to overwork it. It should be used merely as a means to picture 
the relations of the parts of a sentence to the eye. It seems to me a 
teacher's tool rather than a student's tool. The teacher sees these 
relations, and uses the diagram to show them to the student. If the 
student sees these relations, he needs no diagram; if he does not see 
them, how can he use the diagram to picture what he does not see? 

11. Parsing is a much more difficult exercise than analysis. To 
label and classify all the words of an intricate sentence require care- 
ful discrimination and good judgment. Such training is valuable, 
to be sure, but it is not the one thing indispensable. It is not profit- 
able to spend day after day parsing sentences word by word; life is 
too short and the profits too meager. 

12. In both analysis and parsing, get rid of as much impedimenta 
as possible. In both exercises much valuable time is wasted in deal- 
ing with things that encumber rather than aid. The grammars teach 
us that analysis is pure logic, and proceed to separate a simple sen- 
tence into its logical parts, the subject and the predicate, and to 
define each. Then before we get the definitions fairly fixed in our 
minds, we are told that such a sentence has a logical subject, and 
that within that logical subject there may be a grammatical subject. 



32 High School Manual. 

Other grammars inform us that a sentence has a complete subject 
and a simple subject. The subject of a sentence more than likely 
has within it a subject noun, or its equivalent, but to talk of gram- 
matical subjects and logical subjects is itself illogical. 

"In parsing, turn attention to distinctions that correspond to actual 
differences of form or construction. Unless a pronoun is concerned, 
the gender of horse is as irrelevant as the size of "colt," says Dr. 
Wardlaw. Really gender in English is retained on account of the 
personal pronouns, he, she, and it. Then, why waste time giving 
the gender of every noun? Moreover, all nouns either have gender 
or are genderless, that is, nouns are naturally divided into gender 
nouns and neuter nouns. It is, therefore, tautological and contra- 
dictory to speak of nouns of the neuter gender. 

13. Prepositions are often passed over lightly, as if unimportant 
or easily mastered. The fact is, they give no little trouble to any but 
experienced writers. The uses of shall and will, the sequence of 
tenses, the distinction between the restrictive and the non-restrictive 
clause, and the peculiar uses of the subjunctive give trouble to 
almost all students. 

14. Do not be misled into regarding English a grammarless lan- 
guage. To be sure, it is not a language of concord, as is Latin or 
Greek, but a language of function. Always remember that you are 
teaching English grammar, not Latin grammar. 

15. Sometimes it is difficult to determine what is good standard 
English. The main thing for the teacher to remember is that it is 
quixotic to fight good usage with the arbitrary rules of grammar. 

16. Setzler's An Introduction to Advanced English Syntax is 
intended for use in the fourth year of the high school, and should be 
used here only. It furnishes ample work for that year, with two 
recitations a week. Give the time to those topics not understood by 
the class ; do not waste time on topics already perfectly familiar to 
these students. 

LITERATURE. 

I have selected literature as the next topic of English, because I 
wish to relate it as closely as possible with the study of grammar. 
I have already said that the study of grammar and literature should 
never be divorced. By this it is not meant that literary study should 
ever degenerate into exercises in analysis and parsing. But it is 
meant that from the literature are to be drawn some of the best 



High School Manual. 33 

examples in teaching analysis and parsing, and that in the study of 
literature there is to run through it a sub-conscious appreciation of 
sentence structure and word choice. Wherever the grammar of the 
first and second years of the high school is married closely to good 
literature well taught, you will find alert and enthusiastic students. 

The purposes of literature in the high school are not only to intro- 
duce the student to the best in the field of letters and to give him a 
relish for good reading — things highly desirable in themselves, but 
to touch the very springs of his spiritual nature and to give them 
wholesome direction. In this work the high school teacher enjoys 
the enviable privilege of having the student during the period of 
adolescence, when he naturally sees visions and dreams dreams — 
when his emotional nature is widest awake. If a student pass 
through this period untouched by literary culture, it is doubtful if he 
ever will appreciate literature as he might. 

Literature is a fine art, and it can not be measured in a retort. It 
is something more than knowing — it is feeling; it deals with ideals 
and emotions. Perhaps the teaching of no other high school sub- 
ject calls for finer equipment on the part of the teacher. Not only 
must he have a sympathetic appreciation of literature, but a sympa- 
thetic insight to the subtle character of the youth to be taught. He 
must understand how to harmonize the literature and the boy. As 
Prof. B. E. Geer well puts it, "He must lead the class in appreciation, 
if he would lead it into appreciation.'' 

For the kinds of literature suitable for high school work, and for 
the detailed methods of teaching literature in the high school, the 
teacher is referred to chapters XIII-XVI of Chubb's The Teaching 
of English, and to pages 250-282 of Carpenter, Baker & Scott's The 
Teaching of English. I venture to append a few suggestions to the 
teacher. Some of them will be found fully and satisfactorily dis- 
cussed in the references just cited. However, some of them appear 
to me so important as to warrant my setting them down here : 

1. Select such literature as is adapted to the age, the training, and 
the appreciation of your students, and such as is suited to the train- 
ing and skill of the teacher. To compel a student to drone over 
literature beyond his comprehension is an injustice to him and 
prejudicial to the subject. In selecting the literature, consult his 
needs rather than your tastes. You can not force growth in this 
matter. Hamlet, The Princess, and Burke's Speech on Conciliation 



34 High School Manual. 

are good literature, but to put any one of them into the first or 
second year of the high school would be a serious mistake. A few 
individuals from cultivated homes and with unusual literary training 
in the grades would handle these selections with more or less ease 
and profit, but the average eighth and ninth grade students would 
blunder through them without any real benefit. In this matter do 
not permit your ambition to outrun your judgment. 

2. The College Entrance Examination Board has set for Study 
and Practice, during a period of four years, the following selec- 
tions : 

Shakespeare — Macbeth; 

Milton — Lycidas, Comus, L' Allegro, II Penseroso; 

Burke — Speech on Conciliation z^'ith America, or 
Washington — Farewell Address, and 
Webster — First Bunker Hill Oration; 

Macaulay — Life of Johnson, or 

Carlyle — Essay on Burns. 

It will be noted that these selections make but four groups, one 
for each year in the high school. These selections are adapted to 
high schools based upon an elementary school of eight years, and it 
is more than doubtful if any one of these groups can be profitably 
studied by eighth grade students. If not adapted to your eighth 
grade, there is but one sensible thing to be done — to substitute other 
literature of recognized merit for the Uniform Requirements. 

In addition to these selections for Study and Practice, the same 
Board has selected a long list of standard British and American 
literature for Reading and Practice. The list is put into six groups, 
and from these groups ten selection are to be made for a four-year 
course. 

Thus, it will be seen that a class that has used, for instance, 
Macbeth for Study and Practice, and two other selections for Read- 
ing and Practice has done a good nine months* work. 

3. Every high school course in literature should contain a fair 
proportion of both prose and poetry. Moreover, the course should 
embrace all the common types of literature, such as, biography, 
essays, fiction, narrative and descriptive prose, lyric and dramatic 
poetry. 

4. Much ridicule has been heaped upon the extravagances of cor- 
relation, and with some justice. Yet closely related subjects ought 



High School Manual. 35 

to be correlated in the curriculum whenever possible. For example, 
the class in Roman history would find Lays of Ancient Rome some- 
thing more than an isolated poem ; Burke's Speech on Conciliation 
would be very fitting at one particular period of American history ; 
and Ivanhoe would give zest to English history during the reign of 
the Plantagenets. If such specimens are in themselves good litera- 
ture, they become more valuable when they can thus be used to lend 
interest to, and to draw help from, other studies. 

5. What is good literature for adults may not be suitable literature 
for school boys and girls. A man who has never been a real boy, or 
a woman who has never been a romping girl, is usually ill equipped 
to select the reading matter for healthful, vigorous young people. 
Anemic literature does not appeal to young students ; it must have 
"red blood" to attract and hold. 

6. Perhaps the greatest single aid to successful literature study is 
regular reading aloud by both teacher and pupils. It is doubtful if 
genuine success can be attained without it. Reading aloud ought to 
be made a good part of the preparation of a piece of literature, and 
the greater part of the recitation should be given to it. Thirty 
minutes of reading aloud by a student will show more clearly his 
understanding of a piece of literature than could be got from him in 
a whole day of written examination questions about that piece. 

Good reading is more than a mere accomplishment ; it lies at the 
very bottom of all thought-getting and thought-giving. In the 
schools of today the child spends the greater part of the first three 
years of his school life being taught to read. During the next four 
years of his school life, so many other subjects are crowded upon 
him that his reading is neglected to his irreparable hurt. After visit- 
ing literally hundreds of schools, I am fully convinced that not one 
high school student in every ten can read more than decently, and 
almost none read well. What is far more unpromising, compara- 
tively few teachers are much better readers than these high school 
boys and girls. For all this there is but one effective remedy — to 
read aloud. It requires time, and diligent, persistent, intelligent 
effort to become a good reader, but it is an excellent investment. A 
superficial study of the qualities of voice, pitch, inflection, modula- 
tion, and the like, will not make a good reader; nor will one become 
a good reader by simply "entering into the spirit of a selection and 
reading naturally." I can not refrain from quoting Dr. Hiram 



36 High School Manual. 

Corson on this point: " 'Enter into the spirit of what you read, read 
naturally, and you will read well," is about the sum and substance of 
what Archbishop Whateley teaches on the subject, in his Elements 
of Rhetoric. Similar advice might with equal propriety be given a 
clumsy, stiff-jointed clodhopper in regard to dancing: 'Enter into the 
spirit of the dance, dance naturally, and you will dance well.' The 
more he might enter into the spirit of the dance, the more he might 
emphasize his stiff-jointedness and his clodhopperishness." This 
whole subject of reading aloud is so well set forth in Dr. Corson's 
little volume, The Voice and Spiritual Education, that I commend its 
careful study to every teacher of literature. 

Let it be said with awful solemnity that by reading aloud is not 
meant school elocution. Helpless school children need the strong 
arm of the law to protect them against any such torture ; corporal 
punishment is more humane. "To one who has truly appreciated it, 
there is nothing more dreary than the usual elocutionary rendering 
of a poem." Good reading does not consist in making face-, practic- 
ing frenzied gesticulations, and ''cutting vocal capers." 

7. One of the first elements of good reading, and one of the most 
trustworthy evidences of cultivated English, is a clean, clear-cut 
enunciation. Good pronunciation is a matter of importance, but 
good enunciation is imperative. Recognized pronunciations free 
from pedantry, and clear enunciation void of affectation always 
command ready attention anywhere, while uncouth pronunciations 
and indistinct enunciation always repel. One can not help feeling a 
bit low-spirited over the fortunes of good speech when he hears high 
school students, and not infrequently high school teachers, repeatedly 
saying himsef for himself, histry for history, blieve for believe, 
Amarican for American, and many others. 

8. Careful word-study in connection with literature may be made 
both pleasant and profitable, but it should never be made an end in 
itself. The fine shades of meaning and the fine distinctions between 
words commonly regarded as synonymous offer excellent training in 
discrimination and judgment. However, a class should never be 
permitted to fall into the habit of quibbling over words. 

9. It goes without saying that one of the principal objects of liter- 
ary study is to train students in their judgment. Without such pur- 
pose the study would be colorless. However important and fasci- 
nating this work, it must be done with great care. It is difficult, 



High School Manual. 37 

and the student is entirely without standards such as are his in the 
study of the natural sciences. One of the evils to be constantly 
avoided is the reading into a selection what its author never so much 
as dreamed of. Poor Shakespeare suffers untold distortions at the 
hands of his over zealous interpreters. 

10. Prof. Geer says, "Too much emphasis can not be laid on the 
fact that the teaching of the history of literature in high school 
classes is of secondary importance." When a text in the history of 
literature is used in the high school, it should be used merely as a 
reference book. The student needs to read literature instead of 
reading about literature. How can a high school boy be expected 
to appreciate the significance of Victorian Literature, for instance, 
when he has never read a half dozen selections from that period, and 
knows but little of the history of that period? 

COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. 

It is safe to assert that no other school exercise comes nearer 
giving a nightmare to both students and teachers than composition 
writing. Is it because the writing of compositions is so difficult a 
task? Or, is it due to a wrong notion about the purpose of composi- 
tion writing and the manner in which we go about the thing? I am 
persuaded that we attempt to get something into the boy, when we 
should be getting something out of him. We find comparatively 
little trouble in getting pupils to talk — to tell us what they have seen 
and heard and think about people and things. Is not that what we 
wish them to do in compositions — to write what they have seen and 
heard and think about people and things? Then, why do we succeed 
so easily in the former, and fail so dismally in the latter? 

In getting pupils to talk we let them express themselves just as 
they are accustomed to talk at home, on the playground, and in the 
fields — without any rules dangling over their heads. When we set 
pupils to writing compositions we insist on their taking some par- 
ticular thing to write about, and we hedge them about with rules for 
paragraphs, rules for coherence, rules for clearness, rules for unity, 
rules for emphasis, rules for outlines — rules ! rules ! Is it any won- 
der that a kind of panic takes possession of the pupil the moment he 
is called upon to write a composition? Now, rules for spelling, 
capital letters, punctuation, and ordinary grammatical correctness 
do not come in this category. The strict observance of these latter 



38 • High School Manual. 

is necessary to decent writing, and must be insisted upon, if the 
student is ever to form habits of correct writing. 

Manuals of composition are very convenient, and to untrained 
teachers are indispensable, but I am firm in my conviction that the 
misuse of them is wide-spread and always harmful. What is most 
desirable, and what must be done, is to get the pupil to feel at ease 
when putting his thoughts into writing. To achieve this he must 
first get accustomed to writing just as he thinks— relatively free 
from the restraint of rules. For years he has been hearing at least 
some good English, and he has certainly read some good English 
before he gets to the high school. He is not lacking entirely in 
standards, nor is he an entire stranger to composition, but he is not 
particularly interested in clearness, unity, and emphasis. However, 
when he has become accustomed to transferring his thoughts to 
paper, he is ready to be sent to the textbook for models and sugges- 
tions by which he may improve his work. Certainly in some 
measure he will succeed; let every success be recognized by the 
teacher and pointed out to the pupil. Success always gives inspira- 
tion. Next, point out a few of the simpler errors, and give him defi- 
nite references to his text and his literature for models for correction. 
In making corrections and suggestions, use red ink and the blue 
pencil sparingly. The prodigal use of either is chilling to the young 
writer. Writing is what you want; correct writing will come by 
and by. 

To learn to write with ease requires much practice ; to learn to 
write good English with facility requires long years of unremitting 
practice. Textbooks are good things, but it ought to be evident to 
us all that droning for two or three years over rhetoric and composi- 
tion books has not made either ready or accurate writers of our 
pupils. The process is too mechanical, and the results are too 
wooden. Something must be done to make composition work less 
repulsive and more vital. On this point Dr. J. I. McCain offers this 
excellent advice : "Composition should be taught in such close con- 
nection with life and with literature that what the pupil writes will 
be the outgrowth of his observation and experience, on the one hand, 
and of his studies in literature, on the other. Connecting the work 
with the pupil's own observation and experience will give personality 
and originality to it ; connecting it with literature will give a wider 
range of thought and a better sense of form and structure." 



High School Manual. 39 

The whole subject of composition teaching in the high school is 
fully discussed in chapter XVII of Chubb's The Teaching of Eng- 
lish, and by G. R. Carpenter on pages 218-244 of Carpenter, Baker 
& vScott's The Teaching of English. The teacher will find many 
helpful suggestions in these two chapters. 

1. Part III of Buehler's Grammar with Composition furnishes all 
the textbook instruction in composition needed in the first and second 
years of the high school. Two-year high schools need no other com- 
position text whatever. 

2. Brooks' English Composition, Book One, furnishes ample 
material for two years' work. The preface to this book says that 
the book was prepared to meet the needs of the first two years of the 
high school, meaning the 9th and 10th grades. The book was not 
intended to be used in the Sth grade, and to use it there would not 
give good results. Forty-one pages (237-278) of this book are 
devoted to grammar. Schools using Buehler's Grammar in the first 
and second high school years, as recommended in this manual, would 
do well to omit these forty-one pages in Brooks. Pupils going from 
Buehler to Brooks would find the order of the grammar reversed, 
and a difference in the terminology, both of which would be some- 
what confusing to young pupils. 

3. Woolley's Handbook of Composition may be used in both the 
third and fourth years with great profit. It must be used as it was 
intended, as a handbook for reference, and not for class recitation. 
To assign section after section of it for recitation will prove a fail- 
ure. Instead, keep it in daily use by referring your pupils to it for 
specific direction in cases of doubt as to diction, sentence structure, 
punctuation, and other topics. 

4. Do not attempt to use either Brooks or Woolley until you have 
mastered the preface. The preface shows how the book is to be 
used. The best of tools may be an utter failure, if improperly used. 
The special attention of teachers is called to the second full para- 
graph on page 5 of the preface of Brooks. 

5. Teachers are cautioned against falling into error as to the com- 
position recommended in the high school programs in this manual. 
Composition work is expected in every year of the high school, and 
in some form it will come up in almost every English recitation. It 
should receive some special attention at least once a week in every 
English class. In the third year the subject is given as composition 



40 High School Manual. 

and rhetoric, and three recitations a week throughout the year are 
recommended. 

6. But little rhetoric teaching can be done in the high school, but 
a little elementary rhetoric is necessary in the composition work of 
the third and fourth years. Whatever rhetoric work you attempt 
should not be taken from a college text. It is no uncommon thing 
for a college student, even in his sophomore year, to tell you that he 
used the required textbook when he was in the second or third year 
of the high school. In such instances someone has erred badly. 

7. The proper place to learn punctuation is in the composition 
work. A sentence is not complete until it is properly punctuated. 
The sole object of punctuation is to aid in making grammatical rela- 
tions clear. It is a waste of time to study a manual of punctuation 
apart from the actual use of punctuation. 

8. Teachers of composition will be frequently and painfully 
reminded that most high school boys and girls are deficient in spell- 
ing. It would seem that the poor spelling of so many pupils in the 
high school ought to demonstrate to teachers the folly of wasting so 
much time spelling words that pupils never meet outside freak spell- 
ing books. Teachers compel pupils to spend months learning to 
spell such words as eleemosynary, ipecacuanha. Chihuahua, and a 
hundred others that they will never use and may never again see, 
while they come up to the high school unable to write correctly such 
words as proper, lose, balance, and a hundred others they need every 
day. 

Payne's Common Words Commonly Misspelled will furnish prac- 
tical spelling as far as needed in the high school. The quantity of 
high school spelling will depend entirely upon the needs of the 
classes. Spelling is an appeal to the eye rather than to the ear, but 
both oral ?.nd written spelling should be given. People have but 
little need to spell any word until they come to write it. If pupils 
be given a desire to spell correctly in all their written work, they will 
spell at least fairly well. 

English spelling is not a matter of rule, but there are at least three 
rules of spelling which ought to be mastered by every pupil before 
he reaches the high school. These are (1) the rule for dropping the 
silent c at the end of a word when taking a suffix. (2) that for chang- 
ing the final y into i on taking a suffix, and (3) that for doubling the 
final consonant on taking a suffix. 



High School Manual. 41 

Whatever other mistakes you or your predecessor may have made 
in teaching spelling, do not make a greater mistake by taking a dic- 
tionary for a spelling book. This caution ought to require no 
argument. 

Books Recommended to Teachers. 

Chubb's The Teaching of English. Macmillan. $1.00. 

Carpenter, Baker & Scott's The Teaching of English. Longmans. 
$1.50. 

Woodward's English in the Schools. Heath. $0.25. 

Joynes' Notes of Lectures on the Parts of Speech and the Study 
of English Grammar. R. L. Bryan. $0.20. 



42 High School Manual. 



HISTORY. 



More and more is the educational value of the study of history 
coming to be recognized and appreciated. It deserves to be ranked 
close to the study of the mother-tongue. There are those who 
readily admit that history furnishes interesting reading, but never 
seem to think that the subject offers a broad and rich field for 
systematic study. The curricula of the recent past gave to history a 
very insignificant part of the time spent in the secondary school and 
in the college. The somewhat famous Report of the Committee of 
Ten contains the following paragraph : 

"The principal end of all education is training. In this respect 
history has a value different from, but in no way inferior to, that of 
language, mathematics, and science. The mind is chiefly developed 
in three ways : by cultivating the powers of discriminating observa- 
tion ; by strengthening the logical faculty of following an argument 
from point to point ; and by improving the process of comparison, 
that is, the judgment." 

Since the time at which this Report was issued (1893), history has 
steadily gained ground in the curricula of the high schools of 
America. A wider range of history is offered, more time is given to 
the subject, and the methods of teaching it are improving. Almost 
every reputable high school of four years offers at least two years of 
history ; the best schools offer four years. Less time than four years 
is inadequate to secure the best results, and if the study is worth 
studying at all, it is worth studying extensively. 

History has come to be looked upon as something more than "a 
record of past events." It deals with every phase of the institu- 
tional life of man — social, political, religious, intellectual, and indus- 
trial ; it has to do with the whole sweep of human endeavor and 
human achievement. Dr. Charles DeGarmo puts it thus : "Funda- 
mentally, history is the story of man and all that favors or hinders 
his progress in well-being — the influences of his environment 
whether natural or human that have affected him, the responses he 
has made to the stimuli of this environment, the institutions he has 
devised to fix and transmit his advances ; in short, the whole account 
of his efforts, mishaps, failures, and successes as a social being." 



High School Manual. 43 

History cultivates not only the judgment, but when properly 
taught it goes far toward forming the student's attitude of mind 
toward his civil rights, duties, and responsibilities. From no other 
source does he get a clearer view of his obligations toward the State, 
and enlightened patriotism. "It is impossible to look for patriotic 
feeling from one who is ignorant of what his country has stood for 
in the development of civilization." A sharp distinction must be 
made between emotionalism and a sincere devotion to what is best 
in a country's deeds and traditions. A deliberate effort to teach 
patriotism would defeat its own end, as would a deliberate effort to 
secure happiness. Patriotism is inspired by the lives of our fellows 
and our willingness to emulate them. 

Certainly no other school subject is better fitted to cultivate the 
spirit of tolerance. The whole history of the human race is the 
story of the emancipation of man from superstition, and from intel- 
lectual, political, and personal slavery. Mathematical calculation 
concerning the right and the wrong of historical actions result in 
intolerance, since mathematics knows no caprice, personal bias, or 
party affiliation. 

With reference to still another virtue, Dr. H. E. Bourne has this 
to say: "History, certainly as much as any other object of study, 
requires an intelligent search for truth, and the historian is obliged 
to follow after it through a more difficult way than even the scientist, 
because he must hunt among records which often contain erroneous 
statements or wilful distortions of what actually occurred. . . . This 
constant endeavor to discover truth must result in an increased 
respect for it, and in an habitual inclination to take some pains to 
know what it is." 

A few have attempted to reduce history to a science or to a system 
of philosophy, but such efforts are destined to failure. History 
moves in the realm of the contingent, that is, it deals with causes and 
effects which do not follow the invariable order of natural law. It 
is for this very reason that it appeal's so much to the judgment ; were 
it otherwise, history study would be an endless chain of cold deduc- 
tions of logic. 

Relatively too much of written history has been confined to the 
monotonous recital of wars, and to the narrower political aspects, 
such as the opposing views of political schools, the contentions of 
rival leaders, the rise of political creeds, and the repudiation of mere 



44 High School Manual. 

doctrines. All these have a place, to be sure, but not to the exclu- 
sion of more vital matters. The evolution of human society is a 
question far broader than mere politics, in the best sense of that 
term. Indeed, in the last analysis political questions are but inci- 
dental to the greater sociological ones. 

At present the most important phases of history are the sociolog- 
ical and the industrial. Yet, until quite recently neither of these 
phases received more than passing attention in school textbooks. 
The historian, dealing with his subject from the most modern stand- 
point, has more to do with the evolution of society and the introduc- 
tion and development of human industries than with all other ele- 
ments of human achievement. 

It is exceedingly unfortunate that the school histories have been so 
largely given over to the recital of what may be called the destructive 
and the barbarous in man. The kettledrum and trumpet stories 
are far from the best that is in man and far from the most that 
is in history. John Richard Green struck a high key in the preface 
to his Short History of the English People: "If I have said little of 
the glories of Cressy, it is because I have dwelt much on the wrongs 
and misery which prompted the verse of Langland and the preach- 
ing of Ball. ... I have set Shakespeare among the heroes of the 
Elizabethan age, and placed the scientific inquiries of the Royal 
Society side by side with the victories of the New Model. If some 
of the conventional figures of military and political history occupy 
in my pages less than the space usually given them, it is because I 
have had to find a place for figures little heeded in common history 
— the figures of the missionary, the poet, the printer, the merchant, 
or the philosopher." The real history of a country has not been 
written until every agency making for its growth or retardation has 
been recognized. 

One of the erroneous conceptions of the content of history is to 
regard it as a mere storehouse of facts. There can be no objection 
to facts properly marshaled and wisely used, but to study history for 
the sole purpose of getting an array of bare facts is to err in the 
beginning. Unrelated facts are about as useless rubbish as ever 
burdened a human mind ; next to these come undigested facts. Cer- 
tainly one must know the facts before he can understand their 
meaning, but the significance of the facts is the essential thing. Let 
it be repeated that in history we can not deduce effects from given 



High School Manual. 45 

causes with apodictic certainty, as in mathematics, but the relations 
between causes and effects can usually be discerned. There is law 
running through it all, certainly with its variations and its deflections, 
but withal law. For example, we know that to the wildernesses of 
America came thousands of men and women from Europe during 
the seventeenth century. We wonder why these men and women 
left their native lands, their own homes, and their kindred to settle 
in a wilderness. We begin to look for attractions in America. In 
the twentieth century America attracts people from every quarter of 
the globe, but it was not so attractive in the earlier years of the 
seventeenth century. There must have been some repelling force at 
work in Europe. Let us go to the facts ; here are some : 

1. Under Henry VIII great numbers of discharged soldiers found 
themselves without work, and were compelled to beg. They looked 
to the monasteries for scanty support ; Henry destroyed the monas- 
teries, leaving the beggars without means of support. 

2. In the reign of Edward VI the unenclosed lands of England 
were seized by the nobles and fenced in for sheep-pastures, and rents 
rose in many cases tenfold, thus making pauper peasants out of the 
small farmers. 

3. After the destruction of the Spanish Armada, in the reign of 
Elizabeth, thousands of idle soldiers were again turned loose in Eng- 
land, and many of them were driven to robbery. 

4. In 1601, England enacted a Poor Law which required all able- 
bodied men to labor for their own support. Not a few refused to 
work, and chose what they regarded as an easier way to support 
themselves, and fear of the gallows did not deter them. 

5. As is frequently the case, many men of comparative wealth had 
lost their fortunes and wished to rebuild them. 

6. The sixteenth century had aroused a spirit of daring and 
adventure in the people throughout Europe. 

7. All Europe was chafing more or less under religious oppres- 
sion. 

Putting together all these facts, are we not in a position to inter- 
pret their effect upon the settlement of America? 

Some writers of school histories and many teachers over-empha- 
size dates. Of course, some dates are important, but there are many 
to which there can not be attached the least value. Chronological 
tables are in no sense history. In learning dates the student should 



46 High School Manual. 

let the less important dates cluster about the more important ones, 
just as he should let the less important events themselves cluster 
about the more important ones. The teacher must help the student 
to understand what lends importance to an event or to the date. 

For instance, the purchase of Louisiana by the United States is an 
important event, because it began an era of territorial expansion on 
the part of the United States government. Suppose that two stu- 
dents were asked for the date of that transaction, and one were to 
answer by giving the date — 1803, while the other, unable to give the 
year, were to answer by giving the circumstances surrounding the 
purchase and the parts played by Jefferson and Napoleon ; which 
would have given the better answer with respect to the date? 
Would the latter have any difficulty in determining priority between 
the purchase of Louisiana and the establishment of the United States 
Bank in Washington's administration, though unable to give the year 
of either? 

1. To teach history well requires considerable knowledge of the 
subject, a taste for it, a spirit of tolerance and patience in getting at 
truth, and skill in handling a class. All these are qualifications 
which any teacher may cultivate and ultimately possess. Time and 
effort will bring success. To carry to the study either indifference 
or prejudice will be fatal to anything like success. The student will 
attack the subject in the same spirit the teacher approaches it. 

2. The teacher can not depend upon the textbook to do his teach- 
ing for him. The best of textbooks furnish the mere skeleton. 
Whatever of flesh and blood and life be given the teaching, the 
teacher himself must furnish. In history the teacher may succeed 
gloriously or fail ignominiously, almost as he elects to do. In no 
other high school subject has he a finer opportunity to make the reci- 
tation hour count for something large and vital, or to fritter away 
the time on things trivial and puerile. Should he lend an intelligent 
enthusiam and a wholesome guidance to the class, and give broad and 
comprehensive significance to the subject, he may hope for abundant 
success; should he carry to the subject a lamentable ignorance forti- 
fied by prejudice, and a dulness of manner that chills the student, 
he may look for nothing but failure. 

3. Some parallel reading is necessary to the success of history 
study in the high school, but care must be exercised in both the kind 
and the amount required. Students on entering the high school, 



High School Manual. 47 

especially in the eighth school year, are neither mature enough nor 
trained enough to do very much profitable parallel reading in his- 
tory. Whatever parallel reading is assigned should be very definite, 
and should bear directly upon the matter in hand. Do not be con- 
tinually lugging in extraneous matter ; such a course may indicate 
that you know a good deal of history, but it also indicates that you 
do not know much about teaching it. Parallel reading does not 
mean that the student should be given the same thing to be read over 
and over in different places or in different books. The student is 
seeking additional light on a given point, not repeated light. Some 
teachers think they are giving parallel reading when they require 
students to read the same thing from two or three history texts. 
Such a course may bewilder the student instead of enlightening him, 
since different texts may approach a given historical question from 
as many viewpoints. 

As the student progresses through the high school his parallel 
reading may be increased. By the time he reaches the fourth year 
he ought to be able to handle such side lights with ease and profit. 

4. No very successful history teaching can be done in the high 
school without at least a small reference library and a few good 
historical maps. The matter of a suitable reference library is too 
large to be discussed here. The writer would be glad to take up the 
matter with anyone interested in it. Teachers will find many help- 
ful suggestions in A History Syllabus for Secondary Schools, pre- 
pared by a Special Committee of the New England History Teachers' 
Association, and published by D. C. Heath & Co. 

It must be constantly borne in mind that any kind of library to be 
of any service whatever must be used, and that high school students 
are not going to use books giving dry details of military campaigns, 
dissertations on the science of government, and fine-spun arguments 
on abstruse political doctrines. 

5. Good maps in the hands of a competent teacher are of the 
highest practical value ; an incompetent teacher has no use for maps 
of any kind — he could not use them, if he had them. In most 
schools the main use of maps seems to be for decorative purposes. 
Historical maps to be serviceable must show the geography contem- 
poraneous with the history. "Correct modern maps with ancient 
names printed on them are not only worthless but misleading." For 
a high school student to undertake to understand the geography of 



48 High School Manual. 

Columbus' day from a study of a modern map of the world would 
be as difficult to him as to reconstruct Milton's universe. 

6. Ambition unseasoned with judgment sometimes betrays a good 
high school teacher into having his pupils do what he is pleased to 
call research work. Research in history means the study of the 
material out of which history is made, and is entirely beyond the 
capacity of the high school boy or girl. It is not well for the high 
school teacher to put on university airs, and to indulge in the prodi- 
gal waste of the students' time. "Cobbler, stick to your last," is good 
advice to the over-ambitious anywhere. 

7. In assigning work to classes for preparation, do not make the 
assignments by pages or paragraphs. To do so leaves the impres- 
sion that one page or paragraph is as vital as another. Instead, 
assign by topics or sub-topics wherever it is possible. It will some- 
times be found necessary to assign at one time a topic long enough 
for several recitations. 

8. Of course, the cardinal difficulties which beset the path of every 
teacher of history are (1) getting at the essential elements of his- 
tory, and (2) organizing, interpreting, and co-ordinating the mate- 
rial. These subjects are well handled in Mace's Method in History, 
pages 1-76. On the subject of organizing the material, one valuable 
paragraph is here given : 

''Organization is, therefore, a mental process and not a mechanical 
one. No subject, as many teachers unfortunately think, can be 
organized in a notebook or on a blackboard. At best, such an 
arrangement of words and signs can only suggest a few of the rela- 
tions and processes involved in organization. Too often systems of 
lines, braces, and brackets delude the mind and become a substitute 
for that real organization which can only take place in the thinking 
mind." 

9. Do not waste time in drawing elaborate diagrams to be labori- 
ously transcribed into notebooks, or in having students copy extracts 
from some accessible book. Whatever other pedagogical crimes 
the history teacher may have committed, it is to be hoped that he 
may never be guilty of committing either of those two unpardonable 
offenses — that of making a poor reading lesson out of a history 
recitation, and that of lecturing to high school students. 

10. Above everything else bring your students to the study of 
history with unprejudiced and open minds, bent on finding the truth 



High School Manual. 49 

and accepting it. No one can discern truth, unless he carry to his 
task sympathy and perspective. Every historical question must be 
viewed in its larger setting and must be viewed through sympathetic 
eyes. 

11. Do not permit students to commit the text to memory. Be 
careful that your manner of conducting the recitation does not invite 
this error. 

GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. 

1. The best modern high school courses in history are arranged 
chronologically. In a four-year course, Greek and Roman history 
are placed in the first year, Mediaeval and Modern history in the 
second year, English history in the third, and American history and 
Civics in the fourth. The State Board of Education of South 
Carolina has followed this order. The high schools of this State 
meet in the history course, as in some other courses, some difficulty 
arising from the fact that we make the eighth school year the first 
year of the high school. Botsford's Ancient History for Beginners 
will be found difficult enough for any first-year high school student, 
but it can be handled profitably by students properly prepared to 
enter that class. 

2. If we are to get results worthy of the effort, the Greek and 
Roman history should be given daily recitations for thirty-six weeks. 
It will require that time to do the work, and doubtless the average 
teacher will wish for more time. To run through this text in a 
year, with three recitations a week, would be simply farcical. Part 
I of this book, the first forty pages, is devoted to the Orient. Ori- 
ental civilization, however valuable to the mature student, has in it 
but little of interest to the modern high school student of the first 
year, and it is recommended that these forty pages be touched very 
lightly or omitted. 

3. Part II, pages 41-253, of Botsford deals with the Greek his- 
tory, and furnishes ample material for eighteen weeks, with daily 
recitations. In Bourne's The Teaching of History and Civics, pages 
202-227, the teacher will find helpful suggestions as to the purposes 
of teaching Greek history and what phases to emphasize. In this 
connection let it be said that territorial expansion and the extension 
of political power give to Greece a far-reaching importance, but the 
teacher should not let these overshadow everything else. A thor- 
ough knowledge of the geography of Greece is the first thing. The 



50 High School Manual. 

characteristics of the people themselves, and a familiar knowledge of 
their wonderful advancement in letters and art constitute exceedingly 
important phases of Greek history. Greek mythology is always 
interesting to students, and is necessary to an understanding of the 
religious conceptions of the Greek people. 

4. Part III of Botsford, pages 254-469, is given to a study of 
Rome, closing with the crowning of Charlemagne, 800 A. D. This 
gives enough work for eighteen weeks, with daily recitations. 
Pages 228-250 of Bourne's The Teaching of History and Civics are 
devoted to suggestions to the teacher in the history of Rome. 

5. In discussing the transfer from the history of Greece to that of 
Rome, Bourne has this pithy paragraph : 

"In teaching Roman history, there are difficulties that do not 
arise in teaching the history of Greece. There is so much of law 
and government, and these are relatively uninteresting, if not incom- 
prehensible, to children of high school age. They find Greek his- 
tory charming because of its personal character, — a series of heroic 
men, or a series of heroic cities almost equally personal ; but much 
of Roman history seems taken up with a constitutional development 
which is hard for children to comprehend, because they are not old 
enough to enter deeply into political affairs, and further, because the 
constitutional development of Rome is so remote from the govern- 
mental notions which they may have imbibed in their daily experi- 
ence."' 

6. At the close of each chapter in Pot-ford is given Short Topics 
for Reading. Not man)- of the books referred to will be accessible 
to the average high school pupil, and some of them would be beyond 
the appreciation of eighth year students. 

The following books will be found helpful to students for parallel 
reading : 

Botsford's A History of Greece. Macmillan. 

Guerber's Myths of Greece and Rome. American Book Co. 

Plutarch's Parallel Lives. Any Edition. 

Plumner's Home Life* of the .indent Greeks. 

Botsford's Story of Rome. Macmillan. 

Preston & Dodge's Private Life of the Romans. Sanborn. 
Botsford's text has a number of good maps, but these are too 
small for exclusive use. One good wall map of Greece and one of 
Rome are absolutely necessary to good work. Kiepert's Ancient 



High School Manual. 51 

Greece and Ancient Rome (Rand, McNally & Co.), are among the 
best. In addition to these political maps, a good physical map 
would be very useful. 

MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY. 

1. Mediaeval and Modern history very properly should follow the 
history of Greece and Rome. The Committee of Seven in its 
Report to the American Historical Association recommends that 
Mediaeval and Modern History be given in the second year of a 
four-year course, but that these periods be omitted from a three- 
year course, and English history be substituted in the second year. 
This recommendation has been very generally accepted. 

2. Second year high school students are not yet very well sea- 
soned to difficult tasks in history, and no matter how important 
Mediaeval history may be, it is no easy period. In its study it is 
necessary that the teacher should exercise considerable skill, if he is 
to succeed. Prof. S. J. Derrick points out five distinct features of 
this period to be emphasized by the teacher : "1. The general breakup 
of governments and society due to the fall of the Roman Empire; 
2. The wonderful missionary activity and success of the Christians 
among the cultured but heathen Greeks and Romans as well as the 
barbarous and heathen Teutons ; 3. The introduction of Feudalism 
and Chivalry, and the resultant effect in the restoration of orderly 
civil rule ; 4. The growth of the Church as a central temporal and 
spiritual power ; 5. The influence of these four combined factors in 
the formation of distinct nationalities and in the centralization of the 
civil government of each." 

3. For a somewhat full outline of the topics to be stressed in 
Mediaeval history and of the difficulties to be met, the teacher is 
referred to chapter XV of Bourne's The Teaching of History and 
Civics. 

4. Myers' Short History of Mediaeval and Modern Times, the 
State adopted book, furnishes abundant material for thirty-six 
weeks, with daily recitations, and every hour of that time will be 
necessary to satisfactory work. The last chapters of Botsford's 
Ancient History for Beginners and the first six chapters of Myers' 
Mediaeval and Modern Times overlap, that is, Botsford brings his 
history down to the crowning of Charlemagne, while Myers does 
not reach that point until his seventh chapter. For this reason, the 



52 High School Manual. 

first six chapters of Myers may be passed over very rapidly, if the 
students have already had Botsford. 

5. The Modern Age, beginning with the discovery of America, 
is reached on page 156, chapter XIX. On an understanding of the 
Mediaeval period depends an appreciation of the Modern period, 
and with most classes it will be found advisable to give not far from 
one-half of the year to the first eighteen chapters of the text. The 
Modern Age will be found much more interesting to the average 
class than the Middle Ages. 

6. For parallel reading, books covering the Mediaeval and Modern 
Ages are plentiful, but many of the best are heavy reading for the 
high school student in his second year. The most inspiring reading 
will come from the biographies of the leading men and women of the 
two periods. One-volume editions of these biographies can be had 
from almost any large publishing house. Larger editions are not 
recommended. Myers' text has a short bibliography at the close 
of each chapter. 

Guerber's Myths of Northern Lands. American Book Co. 
Guerber's Legends of the Middle Ages. American Book Co. 
MacCoun's Historical Geography Charts of Europe. Silver, Bur- 
dett & Company. 

ENGLISH HISTORY. 

1. English history is given a place in the third year of a four-year 
course, following Mediaeval and Modern history. In a three-year 
course, English history should be given in the second year, following 
the history of Greece and Rome, as already stated. 

2. In a four-year history course in which the students pass from 
Mediaeval and Modern history into English history, Montgomery's 
English History, the State adopted text, can be completed in thirty- 
six weeks, with four recitations a week. The reason for this is that 
the students have already studied something of English history. 
For classes not having studied Mediaeval and Modern history, daily 
recitations for thirty-six weeks are recommended. 

3. English history is interesting to almost all students, and the 
side-lights on it are numerous. Hence, no great difficulties are 
found in teaching at least the important phases of it. Dr. D. D. 
Wallace very discriminatingly recommends that the Anglo-Saxon 
period be passed over with very general study, and that the detailed 
study of the history be begun with the coming of the Normans. 



High School Manual. 53 

Montgomery takes up the coming of the Normans with Section V, 
one page 56. 

4. The very headings of the Sections in Montgomery indicate the 
order of political, social, and religious evolution from the coming of 
the Normans to the present day. These headings are as follows: 
The King versus the Barons, under the Norman Sovereigns ; The 
Barons versus the Crown, under the Plantagenets ; Baron against 
Baron, under Lancaster and York; Crown or Pope? under the 
Tudors ; King or Parliament ? under the Stuarts ; Government by the 
People, under the Hanovers. 

5. By the time the high school student has reached his third year 
he ought to be able to handle with ease and profit a considerable 
amount of parallel reading. Some of the most profitable books 
will be: 

Green's Short History of the English People. Harper. 
McCarthy's Short History of Our Ozvn Times. 
Cheney's Industrial and Social History of England. Macmillan. 
Lee's Source Book of English History. Holt. 

AMERICAN HISTORY. 

1. No matter how many, or how few, years in the high school 
history course, American history should be placed in the last year. 
The reasons ought to be obvious. To the student the history of his 
own country is by far the most important, and he ought to study it 
at the time he can best understand it and appreciate it. By the time 
he reaches the last year in the high school, he is fully capable of 
getting some clear conception of the larger movements in history. 
Finally, there has been to him some sequence in the unfolding of 
these movements. 

2. The State Board of Education has not adopted a high school 
text in American history. Thompson's History of the United 
States has been readopted for use below the high school, and work 
done in that book will no longer be given high school credit. The 
suggestions in this manual contemplate the use of an advanced high 
school text. There are fully a dozen such texts in general use in 
this section of the country. No matter what text is used, it will 
take daily recitations for thirty-six weeks to cover the subject with 
any degree of satisfaction. 



54 High School Manual. 

3. The most helpful single book for the teacher of American his- 
tory is Mace's Method in History. To "The Organization of the 
Periods of American History," the author gives the greater part of 
his book— pages 77-254. The larger divisions of this rather long 
chapter are: 1. Period of the Growth of Local Institutions ; 2. Period 
of the Growth of Union; 3. Period of the Development of National- 
ity : 4. Nationality and Democracy ; 5. Nationality and Slavery ; 
Chapter XVIII, pages 325-352, of Bourne's The Teaching of History 
and Civics is given to the teaching of American history. 

4. Anna Boynton Thompson, a very successful teacher of history, 
gives this excellent advice: "The history of every nation should 
open with the study of the Land and the People." This is particu- 
larly appropriate to the study of American history. 

5. Dr. Charles W. Eliot summarizes the contributions made by 
America to civilization as ( 1 ) the abandonment of war for settling 
international disputes, (2) genuine religious toleration, (3) practi- 
cal manhood suffrage, (4) fitting a variety of nations and races for 
joint political freedom, and ( 5 i general material well-being among 
the people. If these be America's contributions to civilization, they 
ought to be suggestive to the teacher in the organization of his 
material for teaching American history. 

6. The Period of Exploration is full of deeds of courage and 
enterprise, but in them is more of romance than of history. Give 
time only to such explorations as bore results. 

7. Do not attempt to impress the dates of the various colonial 
settlements. On the other hand, the development of colonial insti- 
tutions looking toward self-government is a matter of importance. 

8. In connection with the Revolutionary Period, the two impor- 
tant things are the causes and the results of the war. The average 
high school student passes over this period ignorant of the real 
causes of that conflict, or with a very hazy conception of them. He 
finds it difficult to understand how the independence of the American 
colonists was a victory for the common people of England in their 
struggle against the usurpations of the crown. 

9. That critical period of American history extending from the 
close of the Revolution to the adoption of the Constitution is tedious, 
but it is pregnant with important matter. 

10. The military and naval events of all wars grow monotonous, 
and the dreary accounts of bloody battles are neither attractive nor 



High School Manual. 55 

profitable. In the War Between the States, it is well to select one 
military campaign and work it out fully enough to show the unity 
of purpose in it, then select one battle and work out in detail the 
larger movements. 

11. The slavery struggle and Reconstruction require close atten- 
tion and clear judgment. Again I quote Dr. Wallace: "The slavery 
struggle should be taught consecutively, i. c, topically. It should be 
made clear that the immediate issue was the extension or exclusion 
of slavery in the western territory, on whose character, both sides 
recognized the fate of slavery and the union were to turn. . . . 
Reconstruction should be taught so as to make plain the conflicting 
plans of the President and of Congress, with reasons for the triumph 
of the latter. The lessons to be drawn from the folly and bitterness 
of Congress are obvious, and may profitably be contrasted with the 
policy of Great Britain toward the conquered Boers." 

12. The growth and development of industries and their effects 
upon other phases of institutional life need special emphasis. The 
domestic life and the industrial life of any people largely determine 
the ultimate success or failure of the nation. 

13. The following books and maps are recommended : 
Fiske's Discovery of America. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
Fiske's American Revolution. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 
Fiske's The Critical Period of American History. Hough- 
ton, Mifflin & Co. 

Hinsdale's The Old Northwest. Silver, Burdett & Co. 

Wilson's Division and Reunion. Longmans. 

Walker's The Making of the Nation. Scribners. 

Bryce's The American Commonwealth. Macmillan. 

Brigham's Geographic Influences in American History. 
Ginn. 

Hart's American History Told by Contemporaries. Mac- 
millan. 

Hart's Maps Illustrating American History. Longmans. 

MacCoun's Historical Charts of the United States. Silver, 
Burdett & Co. 

Blackboard Outline Maps of the United States (50x70 
inches). 



56 High School Manual. 

CIVICS. 

The aims in teaching civics are (1) to give to the student a work- 
ing knowledge of the mechanism of government, and (2) to reveal 
to him some of his obligations as an individual in society. In a 
country where manhood suffrage prevails, as in the United States, 
it is of vital importance that every citizen should have an intelligent 
knowledge of the working of the ordinary machinery of government. 
Besides, citizens ignorant of their duties and obligations can not 
render to the State their best service. The making of good citizens, 
in the broadest and best sense of that term, is one of the chief func- 
tions of the school. Singing patriotic songs and floating flags over 
schools, however commendable in themselves, will never make good 
citizens. True citizenship rests upon things far more fundamental 
and vital than mere ceremonies. It rests upon such cardinal virtues 
as charity, love of truth, devotion to right, and service to one's fel- 
low man. 

While civics may be taught with profit in any year of the high 
school, it is decidedly best to correlate it with the American history. 
In fact, civics should be so closely correlated with history as to 
form an integral part of it. For example, the proper place for a 
study of the Constitution of the United States is the time of its 
adoption in the history study. In a half-dozen places in the Ameri- 
can history, the teacher will find it profitable to correlate the tariff as 
discussed in the civics. Wallace's Civil Government of the United 
States, the State adopted text, is admirably adapted to such use in 
the last year of the high school. The teacher need have no trouble 
in carrying the history and civics together without neglecting either. 

The teacher will find Bryce's American Commonwealth of much 
service to himself, and a book likcSanford & James' Government in 
State and Nation (Scribners), of great assistance to his students. 



High School Manual. 57 



LATIN. 



The educational value of Latin is well established in the minds of 
teachers and in the popular mind; it has stood the test for several 
centuries. There is but little danger of Latin's being undervalued, 
but there is danger of its being relatively overestimated. It has 
acquired such prestige that many teachers have come to give the 
subject a kind of idolatrous reverence, without ever stopping to seek 
any justification beyond tradition. With a few it is almost a fetish. 
It would be well for teachers to study the educational value of the 
question more carefully. 

Chapter I, pages 6-49, of Bennett & Bristol's The Teaching of 
Latin and Greek is devoted to a discussion of the Justification of 
Latin as an Instrument of Secondary Education. Prof. Bennett 
says, "First and foremost, I should say Latin is of value because it 
confers a mastery over the resources of one's mother-tongue. This 
mastery comes as the direct and necessary result of careful daily 
translation — a process involving on the one hand a careful consider- 
ation of the analysis of the thought of the author read, and on the 
other hand a severe and laborious comparison of the value of alter- 
native English words, phrases and sentences, with the consequent 
attainment of skill in making the same effective as vehicles of expres- 
sion." In a footnote, Prof. Bennett adds that by "a mastery over 
the resources of one's mother-tongue" is not meant a mere under- 
standing of the meanings of words, but the mastery of ideas of 
which words are but the symbols, and the assimilation of these into 
one's own intellectual life. 

Dr. DeGarmo says, "The most obvious educational value of the 
ancient languages is the opportunity they give for the development 
of language consciousness through the long drill in making gram- 
matical distinctions." 

Prof. Eugene A. Hecker, in his little book, The Teaching of Latin, 
summarizes very succinctly on pages 1-7 the benefits and advantages 
of the study of Latin. With the wealth of benefits flowing from 
the study of Latin, there is certainly little excuse for offering in 
its justification such childish reasons as studying it for the history, 



58 High School Manual. 

or such gibberish as to get from it "that indefinable somewhat" ana 
"that subtle something." 

There is no use to attempt to disguise the fact that Latin is to 
most students a difficult study. It requires intense and sustained 
effort to get out of Latin the value that is in it. However, the mere 
fact that it is difficult has nothing whatever to do with its value. 
Dismiss from your mind any such crotchet as one frequently hears — 
that Latin is a valuable study because it is difficult. On that ground, 
Chinese would be far ahead of Latin. The value of no subject is 
dependent upon the ease or the difficulty with which it is mastered. 
Undoubtedly there is such a thing as mental discipline, but mental 
discipline and mental gymnastics are not at all synonymous. 

Because Latin is a valuable subject does not say that it is the best 
subject, or even a good subject, for everybody. The intense classi- 
cists have done the study of Latin incalculable harm by insisting with 
the spirit of martinetism that at least every boy in the high school 
should study it. To illustrate: Every teacher of any considerable 
experience knows that frequently a class of from 15 to 20 pupils is 
held back to the point of disgust for the subject by two or three 
plodding members who will never learn Latin. Prof. Bennett can 
not be accused of being prejudiced against Latin. Here is what he 
says on this point : 

"At present, however, the danger seems to be not that too few 
will study Latin, but rather too many. Latin is a difficult subject, 
and the peculiar educative power it possesses is not capable of being 
exercised upon all minds, — only upon those of a certain natural 
endowment. In our intense democracy we are perhaps at times 
inclined to forget that no constitutional declarations of civil equality 
can ever make, or were ever intended to recognize, an intellectual 
equality between the individual members of the nation. Latin is 
good for those whose gifts enable them to profit by its study. It is 
not, however, capable of popular distribution like so much flour or 
sugar. Because Latin is a highly effective instrument for the train- 
ing of certain minds, we must not think that the efficiency is con- 
tained in the subject per se; there must exist in the pupil the mental 
endowment requisite to profit by Latin ; else the time spent upon the 
study is worse than wasted. Observation convinces me that many 
parents and pupils labour from a serious misconception on this point, 



High School Manual. 59 

and that many are ambitious to study Latin whom nature has not 
endowed with the capacity to benefit by its pursuit." 

Not a few teachers frankly admit that they have students taking 
Latin under compulsion because the school has nothing else to offer 
in lieu of Latin. Is it fair, or just, or even sensible to compel any 
student to take any subject simply because it is in the curriculum, or 
because the school is unable to offer anything in its stead ? On the 
same plane of logic, were a woman to go to a store and ask for ging- 
ham, and the merchant had no gingham, she should be expected to 
take his only substitute — calico. I have elsewhere tried to empha- 
size the need of a more rational adjustment of high school courses 
to the students. 

Some teachers insist on every high school student's taking Latin 
at least one year in order to test his aptitude and taste for the sub- 
ject. Such a position does not seem to me a strong one. In the 
first place, by the time the pupil has reached the high school a dis- 
cerning teacher ought to be able to discover if he has any apprecia- 
ble language sense. By language sense I mean an instinctively cor- 
rect use of oral and written speech. By the time the pupil reaches 
the high school, with any kind of careful teaching, he manifests his 
aptitude for language. Why should the teacher in the high school 
put him through another year's test to find out what the observant 
teacher ought to know already? In the second place, less than two 
years of Latin study is scarcely worth the undertaking. Is it just 
to the student to take one year of his time to experiment in a matter 
which ought to be already fully understood ? 

It is altogether unwise to crowd Latin into the already congested 
curriculum of the elementary school. The seventh year pupils of 
our South Carolina schools have enough to do without taxing them 
with Latin. To put the Latin there simply compels the pupils to 
prolong into the high school those studies which should be com- 
pleted in the elementary school. Not only do the pupils enter the 
high school encumbered with this unfinished elementary work hang- 
ing over them, but they are unable to do the high school work with 
profit. If the pupils are drilled in the seventh grade in the analysis 
of sentences and the ready use of English, time will be saved by 
waiting for the eighth grade to begin Latin. When Latin is taken 
up in the high school, it should be pursued vigorously every day. 



60 High School Manual. 

The teacher should realize that he is teaching Latin, and not Eng- 
lish. We do not study Latin in order to learn English, however 
fondly we may have cherished that delusion. The idioms of the two 
languages are widely different, and we approach their study in dif- 
ferent ways. To be sure, the student of any language will inciden- 
tally derive benefit from studying any cognate language. In the two 
he is constantly discovering similarities, parallels, and contrasts 
which strengthen him in his linguistic efforts, just as the study of one 
science aids in the study of a kindred one. But, as has already been 
pointed out in the section on English, the grammar of Latin and that 
of English are radically different. 

Unless a teacher knows Latin and something of how to teach it, 
he is most seriously advised not to undertake it. More students are 
driven from Latin through the inferior teaching of it than through 
all other causes combined. This is true of high school and college 
students alike. Boys and girls with red blood in their veins do not 
shun Latin, or any other subject, merely because it is difficult. 
Literally thousands of ambitious students take special delight in the 
mastery of difficult tasks. All that such students ask or need is 
confidence in the ability, skill, and enthusiasm of their teachers. It 
is utterly needless to be continually telling your student of the 
innumerable benefits that have come to thousands who have studied 
Latin, and of the benefit that may come to them from Latin study. 
Demonstrate the benefits by your own attainments and by your 
superior teaching. A teacher has neither the right nor the need to 
ask his students to take on faith the benefits accruing from his own 
chosen subject. 

BEGINNER'S LATIN. 

As in most other things, the beginning is the most important thing 
in teaching Latin. Beginners should be taught by the best equipped 
teacher in the school. Collar & Daniell's First Year Latin has been 
adopted for use in this State. The authors have to accompany this 
text a Teacher's Manual of 43 pages. The first eight pages are 
devoted to general directions for taking up the study of Latin. The 
remainder of the manual gives some specific directions as to teaching 
each of the seventy-five Lessons of the text. Inexperienced teach- 
ers will find a close and intelligent study of this manual a helpful 
guide. 



High School Manual. 61 

Chapter II, pages 50-110, of Bennett & Bristol's The Teaching of 
Latin and Greek is given to a discussion of the Beginner's Book, 
Pronunciation, the Inductive Method, Reading at Sight, and What 
Latin Reading should follow the Elementary Work. It is recom- 
mended that the teacher study this chapter carefully. 

A few additional suggestions are here appended : 

1. The first thirteen pages of Collar & Daniell's First Year Latin 
are devoted to the Essentials of Grammar, and the use to be made 
of the Essentials is discussed in the Teacher's Manual. Unless the 
terminology used in the Essentials agrees with that of the English 
grammar in use by the class, it would be well to omit the Essentials 
altogether. 

2. After seeing it tried with signal success, I am fully convinced 
that it is well for the teacher to require the first two weeks of Latin 
study to be confined to the class recitation. During this period, do 
not assign lessons to be prepared in advance, and do not permit the 
students to carry their books from the class. By so doing, the stu- 
dents approach each lesson under the immediate guidance of the 
teacher, lose no time making blunders and correcting them, and gain 
confidence in their ability to master the work. For a student to 
realize at the end of a month that he has made actual progress with- 
out any loss of time is itself inspiring. Nothing is more discourag- 
ing to a beginner than to have a task assigned him to work out with- 
out any guidance, to spend an hour or two in honest preparation, 
then to be told next day that he has failed even in his understanding 
of what was to be done. 

3. The first difficulty which confronts a beginner in Latin is the 
new and strange words. He must become acquainted with these 
words in written form and in oral speech. He must hear these 
strange words properly pronounced over and over by the teacher; 
next he must pronounce them again and again, until he feels no more 
embarrassment in pronouncing columba, hasta, nauta, and scores of 
others, than he has in pronouncing their English equivalents. Suc- 
cess is the reward of constant drill led by the teacher. 

4. No more important sections are to be found in the First Year 
Latin than sections 42, 43, and 44. Drill on them until your pupils 
understand them thoroughly, then use them constantly. An accu- 
rate and ready knowledge of them will be needed throughout the 
course. For a Latin class at the end of the first year to be unable 



62 High School Manual. 

readily to separate words into their syllables and to accent the proper 
syllable in each is a serious reflection on the work of the teacher. 

5. Correct pronouneiation in the study of Latin, as in other lan- 
guages, is a matter of some weight, but the method is not a matter 
of grave consequence. Only adopt some method and adhere to it. 
The trouble with most students, and with some teachers, is they use 
a mongrel pronunciation. The two most common methods in use in 
this section of the country are the English and the Roman. The, 
Roman is much the simpler, and has in it much to commend it practi- 
cally, such as the help it gives in reading Latin verse. The Roman 
is radipdly displacing the English everywhere. Do not be deterred 
from using the Roman method by a few cheap witticisms sometimes 
heard from men who regard all innovations as heresies. 

6. In the first year's work, the business of supreme importance is 
the mastery of the forms, and nothing less than their mastery can be 
satisfactory. Until the forms are mastered, the student is helpless. 
In their hurry to get their students to reading Latin, teachers too 
frequently neglect this indispensable drill to the undoing of their 
students and to their own endless annoyance. To do this work 
successfully requires a fund of patience, and consummate skill in 
keeping up the interest of the class. 

In mastering the forms several things must be kept constantly 
before the students. Among these are (1) a ready recognition of 
the base, the stem, and the terminations of a word. (2) the English 
meanings of the word as indicated by its terminations, and (3) the 
quantity of the vowels in their terminations. "The mere learning 
by heart the declension of a word without its English meaning is a 
waste of time, and proves a stumbling block to future advancement." 
A student may learn to recite in a parrot-like manner the entire con- 
jugation of regere, yet not be able to give instantly the English for 
regit, reget, regat. He must learn these forms, but the forms with- 
out the exact meanings will prove of little service to him. 

7. The next most important business of the first year is the acquire- 
ment of a good working vocabulary. "The absolute possession of 
such a vocabulary is indispensable to the knowledge of any lan- 
guage." The words of the language — their forms and meanings — 
are the tools without which no work can be done. Without a mas- 
tery of forms and a vocabulary, it is impossible to read Latin. The 
extent of the vocabulary to be acquired before leaving the beginner's 



High School Manual. 63 

book is a mooted question. Some authorities recommend as few as 
700 words, while others recommend as high as 1,500 words. A 
vocabulary of 1,000 words is far in excess of what most students 
have on leaving the beginner's book, but that number does not seem 
unreasonable. Were students required to master even 800 words 
before leaving the beginner's book, our Latin work would be vastly 
improved. The extent of the vocabulary is largely dependent upon 
the number of subjects required in addition to the Latin. 

8. By reference to the preface of Collar & Daniell, it will be seen 
that the completion of this book is what is reasonably expected of 
intelligent and industrious pupils of fourteen who have five recita- 
tions a week for a school year of thirty-eight weeks. It must be 
remembered that these pupils are supposed to enter school at the age 
of six years and to have been in school eight years when they enter 
the high school. It must be further remembered that usually but 
three other subjects are required in the same year. In our South 
Carolina high schools, organized as at present, it will require forty 
weeks, with daily 45-minute recitations to complete the Collar & 
Daniell, including the Selections for Reading. In the smaller high 
schools, with shorter recitation periods, it will require forty-five 
weeks to do the work thoroughly. 

READING AND TRANSLATING LATIN. 

1. Remember that reading Latin and translating it are two very 
distinct processes. One is getting at the thought of the writer in a 
foreign tongue ; the other is turning that thought into good modern 
English. In getting at the thought the reader metaphrases, that is, 
uses literal renderings, but the translation should never be literal, 
unless it is at the same time idiomatic English. Here lies a strong 
reason for not beginning the study of Latin until the pupil has 
formed the habit of using fairly good English. To translate rosa 
puellae est "a rose is to the girl," or to render vencrunt qui pa.ccm 
pctcrcnt "they came who might seek peace" is worse than nonsense; 
it is vicious. On this point, Prof. Charles W. Bain gives this sound 
advice : "When the translation of connected Latin is begun, nothing 
but accurate and idiomatic English should be allowed. One of the 
great advantages from studying Latin consists in the thinking out of 
how a given passage of Latin may be rendered into idiomatic Eng- 
lish, for the methods of thought of the two people are entirely 



64 High School Manual. 

different. It is the thought, and not the words, which is to be trans- 
lated, and he who renders a Latin thought into good idiomatic Eng- 
lish has done good work. The mere slavish rendering of words 
from one language into another does little, if any, good." 

2. Closely akin to slavish literal translations are the slipshod ren- 
derings of many Latin words, such as fides, honor, rcligio, virtus, id, 
and others of the same type. The first three of this list do not 
always mean "faith," "honor," and "religion ;" the fourth rarely ever 
means "virtue ;" and "this thing" for the fifth word is meaningless. 

3. Pupils deficient in the ability to grasp the sense of a sentence 
in Latin fall into the evil habit of calling the Latin words one at a 
time, and after each giving simply the English equivalent. To illus- 
trate, Gallia est omnis divisa in partes trcs is thus rendered : Gallia — 
Gaul, est — is, omnis — all, divisa — divided, in — in, partes — parts, trcs 
— three. 

4. I hesitate to give here a translation written out by a high school 
student and accepted by his teacher on the recitation. The first of 
chapter 22 of Book II of Caesar's Gallic War reads as follows: 
Instructo excrcitn, magis ut loci natura deiectusque collis ct neccs- 
sitas temp oris, .quam ut rex militaris ratio atquc ordo postulabat, cum 
divcrsae legioues aliae alia inparte hostibus resistercnt, saepibusquc 
densissimis, etc. The written translation reads thus: "The army 
having been drawn up more as the nature of the place and the slope 
of the hill and the necessity of the time than as the order and plan 
of military things demanded, since the different legions some in one 
part and some in another were resisting the enemy and the thick 
hedges having been cast down," etc. What could be more degrad- 
ing to either Latin or English than such an exercise done in the name 
of classical study? The teacher who accepted this jargon holds a 
college diploma, and under the law of this State is exempt from 
examination. In such cases the State is permitting crimes against 
defenseless children in the name of enlightenment. 

5. The most inspiring little work for teachers on this subject, so 
far as I have seen, is a pamphlet entitled The Art of Reading Latin, 
by William Gardner Hale. The plan is perfectly sane, and can be 
followed successfully by anyone who knows Latin. 

TRANSLATING LATIN INTO ENGLISH. 
1. American teachers no longer aspire to make Latin writers or 
speakers of their students. In the high school, teachers are content, 



High School Manual. 65 

if their students become able to grasp readily a piece of Latin and 
render it into good idiomatic English. Nevertheless, the student is 
materially aided in getting a grasp on syntax by translating English 
into Latin. Especially is this true in the first year of Latin. When 
regular reading is taken up after the beginner's book, prose composi- 
tion is usually taken up at the same time. For some years teachers 
have fallen away from the regular systematic study of the Latin 
grammar, and have emphasized the prose composition instead. Some 
of the best Latin authorities contend that we have lost by the change, 
and their contention seems well supported. For an illuminating dis- 
cussion of the whole question, the teacher is referred to chapter V, 
pages 158-174, of Bennett & Bristol, already mentioned; also to 
pages 31-37 of Hecker's The Teaching of Latin. 

2. It may be said with safety that one of the reasons for falling 
away from the systematic study of Latin grammar is the formidable 
size and encyclopedic character of the book itself. To put a Latin 
grammar of 400 pages, or more, into the hands of a high school boy 
is an imposition rather than an inspiration. Grammars of the size 
and character of Bennett's will do much to restore this systematic 
study. 

FOLLOWING THE BEGINNER'S BOOK. 

1. In Latin, as in all other subjects, quality far outweighs quantity. 
In high schools running nine and ten months, with 45-minute and 
60-minute periods for recitations, based on an eight-year elementary 
school, and with but four required subjects a year, students can 
easily read the first four books of Caesar, the required six orations of 
Cicero, and six books of Vergil's JEneid in the second, third, and 
fourth years of the high school. In the South Carolina high 
schools, under present organization, this work cannot be properly 
done in the time mentioned, and high school principals and teachers 
are earnestly advised not to attempt it. 

2. After reading with care the 32 pages of the Reading Exercises 
in Collar & Daniell, teachers are advised not to go immediately into 
Caesar, but to use some easier and more attractive material from 
nine weeks to twelve weeks. For this purpose the Viri Romae is 
good. These biographical sketches are far more attractive than the 
military annals of Caesar. Though Caesar has long been accepted 
as a standard, there is nothing sacred in the writings of the old 
Roman. In fact, high school students, especially girls (and they are 



66 High School Manual. 

in the majority), do not care for the dry details of camps, campaigns, 
sieges, battles, and harangues to soldiers. Many of the best authori- 
ties recommend the use of Nepos to the exclusion of Caesar. The 
Latin of Nepos is as difficult as that of Caesar, but the matter is of 
more interest to students. 

3. In the better equipped schools, after giving forty weeks to the 
First Year Latin, nine to twelve weeks to the Viri Romac, there are 
still left fully twenty weeks of the second year for Caesar. In this 
time the first book may be thoroughly handled. It must be borne in 
mind that the first book contains nearly four-tenths of the matter in 
the entire first four books. Some teachers prefer to read the second 
book, then the first. This seems to be chiefly a matter of taste, and 
to offer no distinct advantage over the plan of taking up the books 
in their numerical order. 

4. In the first half of the third year the second and third books of 
Caesar may be read. The Viri Romae and the three books of Caesar 
would easily rate as four books of Caesar. Besides, enough time 
will have been spent on Caesar. In discussing the propriety of giv- 
ing a full year to Caesar, Prof. Hecker asks, "Would any German 
teacher spend a year on the campaigns of Frederick the Great?" 

5. A much mooted question arises now. What shall follow the 
Caesar? Shall it be Cicero, Vergil, or Grid.' Each has its advo- 
cate. On what authors to read and the order of reading them, the 
teacher is referred to Hecker, pages 45-52, 79-87, 97-101 ; also Ben- 
nett & Bristol, chapter III, pages 111-130. 

6. In a four-year course it might be well to give the remaining 
year and a half to the three authors, a half-year to each. There is 
much to commend this course, for it is to be regretted that students 
after four years in Latin have no knowledge of any but three authors 
— Caesar, Cicero, Vergil. Ovid is much easier than Vergil, and 
serves as an excellent introduction to Vergil. 

PROSE COMPOSITION. 

Pearson's Prose Composition, the State adopted text, is divided 
into three parts. "Part I (pages 7-86) contains, in graded lessons, 
the principal points of Latin syntax." "These lessons are designed 
for use at the beginning of the second year's study of Latin, thereby 
serving as a partial review of the first year's work and as an intro- 
duction to the composition work in connection with the prose authors 



High School Manual. 67 

read subsequently." It will be easily seen that classes making a 
systematic study of Latin grammar in the second year have no need 
of Part I of the Pearson text. 

"Part II (pages 87-174) contains short, simple English sen- 
tences based on Books I-IV of Caesar's Gallic War." The Johnstcn- 
Sanford Caesar, the State adopted text, contains 47 pages of exer- 
cises "for oral translation" into Latin based on Books I-IV of Caesar, 
and 18 pages of exercises "for written translation" into Latin based 
on Books I-IV of Caesar. In both instances the exercises are given 
by chapters corresponding to the Caesar text. Classes using the 
Johnston-Sanford Caesar have no need of Part II of the Pearson 
text. 

"Part III presents disconnected English sentences based upon 
Cicero's Catiline, I-II, and connected English based upon Cicero's 
Catiline, III-IV, Pompey's Military Command, Archias, Marcellus, 
and Ligarius. There are also carefully graded exercises for general 
review preparatory to college entrance examinations." In it are no 
sentences based upon Cicero's De Imperio Cn. Pompei, the first 
selection in the State adopted Cicero text, D'Ooge. 

LATIN GRAMMAR. 

The study of the Latin grammar is usually taken up after the 
completion of the Beginner's Book, and in connection with the trans- 
lation of connected Latin reading. Mention has already been made 
of the falling away from a systematic study of the grammar. Many 
teachers use the grammar as a reference book only. My own convic- 
tion is that the grammar should be systematically studied and learned. 
I do not believe that a student will ever get a comprehensive under- 
standing of Latin syntax — the logic of the sentence structure, an 
appreciation of sentence sense, the value of phrase groups, and the 
delicate shades of meaning — without a systematic study of the Latin 
grammar. This subject is discussed in an excellent way on pages 
134-148 of Bennett & Bristol. The teacher is earnestly recom- 
mended to read these pages. 

The following books helpful to teachers have already been referred 
to, some of them several times : 

Bennett & Bristol's The Teaching of Latin and Greek. 
Longmans. 

Hecker's The Teaching of Latin. Schoenhof. 

Hale's The Art of Reading Latin. Ginn. 



68 High School Manual. 



GREEK. 

Greek, like Latin, has long been recognized as having an educa- 
tional value of a high order. Much that is to be said in support of 
the study of Latin might be said with equal force in support of Greek. 
It is true that for a good many years Greek has been losing ground, 
but some of the reasons for the loss of ground are not altogether 
prejudicial to the subject. Without attempting to adduce all these 
reasons, two may be mentioned : first, the rapid introduction of 
modern sciences into the program of studies has largely displaced 
several of the traditional subjects, Greek among them; second, the 
impatience of the modern boy to get through the high school and into 
college or out into active life. 

Greek is a more difficult subject than Latin, and calls for more 
maturity in the study of it. For several obvious reasons it is not 
thought advisable to offer Greek in a high school of fewer than four 
years. First, in such schools the teaching force is almost always 
relatively small — too small to offer Greek to the few desiring it; 
second, less than two years of Greek is not worth undertaking. 

In the classical curriculum suggested in this manual, four periods 
a week are provided through two years, the third and the fourth. 
It is readily conceded that there ought to be five periods instead of 
four, but on account of the small number of students asking for 
Greek in the high school, it was deemed prudent to ask for but four 
periods. 

Unless a teacher feels fully competent to teach Greek, he is ear- 
nestly advised not to undertake it. On the other hand, a competent 
and enthusiastic teacher can do much to put the subject on a perma- 
nent basis in any good four-year high school. 

Prof. A. G. Rembert, a successful teacher of Greek, urges these 
teaching points : "Too much emphasis can not be placed upon vocabu- 
lary work ; carry systematic vocabulary study through the second 
year. Insist upon accent. If the correct pronunciation of each 
word be learned at first and at all times required, Greek accent ceases 
to be a bugbear." 



High School Manual. G9 

That part of Bennett and Bristol's The Teaching of Latin and 
Greek devoted to the latter subject embraces seven chapters, or 114 
pages. These chapters cover almost every phase of teaching Greek 
in the secondary schools. Every teacher attempting to teach it is 
advised to study these chapters. Many helpful suggestions are to 
be found in the Report of the Committee of Ten. 



70 High School Manual. 



FRENCH AND GERMAN. 

Section II, pages 7-14, of the Report of the Committee of Twelve 
of the Modern Language Association of America (D. C. Heath & 
Co.) discusses the value of modern languages in secondary educa- 
tion. A few quotations from that report are here given: 

"Aside from the general disciplinary value common to all linguistic 
and literary studies, the study of French and German in the second- 
ary schools is profitable in three ways: First, as an introduction to 
the life and literature of France and Germany; secondly, as a prep- 
aration for intellectual pursuits that require the ability to read French 
and German for information; thirdly, as the foundation of an 
accomplishment that may become useful in business and travel. 
Under each of these heads a great deal might be said ; but an exhaus- 
tive discussion of the several topics would swell the volume of this 
report beyond the limits within which it is likely to be most useful." 

"The first and greatest value of the study of the modern languages 
must be looked for in the introduction of the learner to the life and 
literature of the two great peoples who, next to the English stock, 
have made the most important contributions to European civilization. 
That these literatures are as important, as worthy of study, as full of 
instruction for the modern man and woman as are those earlier liter- 
atures that once formed the great staple of education, is a proposition 
that we do not think necessary to argue, though it is sometimes 
denied in toto by zealous advocates of classical study. For the pecu- 
liar intellectual myopia that can see nothing new and nothing good in 
modern literature the only remedy is the classical hellebore." 

On another phase of the value of French and German as school 
subjects, Dr. Edward S. Joynes gives this advice, which is in accord 
with the Report already quoted : 

"Coming now to the question of the method of instruction, I pre- 
sent to you the conservative — perhaps old-fashioned — view, that the 
teaching of modern languages should be on the same lines as of any 
other language (Latin or English) — that is, for discipline and cul- 
ture — with the single exception, that the attainment of a correct pro- 
nunciation should be made an indispensable feature. I will add that 



High School Manual. 71 

no one should profess to teach a modern language who does not 
possess this accomplishment." 

"This is not the now popular or perhaps prevailing view. Under 
the influence of foreign' — that is, native French and German — teach- 
ers, in many schools the chief stress is now laid on speaking, with the 
use of the foreign language in the schoolroom, etc., etc. In this 
view I do not concur, for our American schools. In Europe, where 
to speak at least a smattering of two or three languages is important 
in commercial or social life, such teaching — with the necessary sacri- 
fice of the higher ends of discipline and culture — may be defended. 
But not so in American schools, under our different and happier 
conditions. Few of our pupils will need French or German in busi- 
ness, and still fewer, perhaps, may travel abroad in Europe. Even 
for these the school can teach only the elements of conversation or 
writing — and for this smattering, the new 'reform' method 
(so-called) sacrifices, in my opinion, the higher value of the dis- 
ciplinary and cultural study of the language. The chief aim and 
effort should be, in my opinion, in French or German as in Latin or 
English, to secure the highest discipline of language study, with the 
power to read, to understand, and to feel the great masterpieces of 
literature. The effort to teach speaking — impossible in the class- 
room — should be left, when needed, to private and personal instruc- 
tion. In this way modern language becomes a noble and worthy ele- 
ment of true education." 

The study of modern languages may be begun much earlier than 
the study of Greek. Nevertheless, the program of studies in this 
manual provides for but two years of modern languages, the third 
and fourth years. The main reason for this arrangement is that the 
high schools are as yet unable to employ the services of teachers com- 
petent to teach three- and four-year courses in French and German. 
But one year of any foreign language is not recommended. 



72 High School Manual. 



MATHEMATICS. 



Among the so-called practical subjects of the secondary school, 
mathematics ranks among the highest in the popular mind. For 
centuries the subject has been held in high esteem as a discipline for 
the young. Dr. DeGarmo comments thus : "The reason is not far to 
seek, for the world is so constituted that it can not be apprehended 
without some means for discovering and measuring its quantitative 
relations. In the early days of reflection, when men began to search 
for bottom principles in the constitution of things, it was inevitable 
that they should come to the ideas of number and form as necessary 
to the very existence of the world, for whatever tills space and time 
must be subject to geometrical and numerical laws." 

Chapter II, pages 9-52, of Young's The Teaching of Mathematics 
is devoted to the Value of the Study of Mathematics. In discussing 
the facts of mathematics, the author asserts, "There is no subject, 
except the use of the mother-tongue, which is so intimately con- 
nected with everyday life, and so necessary to the successful conduct 
of affairs. Wherever we turn in these days of iron, steam, and elec- 
tricity, we find that mathematics has been the pioneer and guarantees 
results." 

No one denies the immense value of mathematics as a practical 
subject, yet it is apparent that the average man fails to realize how- 
elementary is the mathematics used or needed by men of even more 
than moderate education, exclusive of specialists in certain vocations. 
Thus, mathematics is frequently overrated as a mere practical sub- 
ject. 

Mathematics as a mode of thought is far more valuable than as a 
practical subject. "Mathematics is a science of necessary conclu- 
sions." The conditions given, the conclusions are certain. However, 
some authorities protest against the over-valuation of mathematics as 
an exercise in applied logic. One of them remarks : "Among the 
educated classes we meet everywhere the error that mathematics is 
chiefly useful in education as applied logic, even if it is limited to 
a minimum content. This error finds its explanation in a number of 
circumstances, of which two are of especial importance : first, in the 
common ignorance of the manifoldness of mental processes, methods, 



High School Manual. 73 

and ideas involved in secondary mathematics, and, second, in the 
erroneous conception of the notion of formal discipline, which does 
not perceive that form and content are inseparably united." 

Granted that mathematics is erroneously overrated as applied logic, 
the abstract logic of the subject remains unchallenged, and, although 
the reasoning may be severe, it is also simple. '"Indeed," says a 
recent writer, "the whole subject rests upon a half-dozen axioms and 
a few postulates. The solution of the most difficult problem in alge- 
bra rests primarily upon the equation and its preservation." Too, 
mathematics is progressive; the anxioms and principles of arithmetic 
hold good in trigonometry ; algebra takes the principles of arithmetic 
and generalizes them, then proceeds to widen the circle of reasoning. 
Abstract logic requires almost no memorizing. The formula? consti- 
tute almost the only legitimate field for the memory. 

Mathematics develops a certain kind of imagination, as in the study 
of geometry and architecture, but it should be remembered that the 
imagination of the mathematician and that of the poet are widely 
unlike. One is the imagination of reason, the other of feeling. 

ARITHMETIC. 

Considering the amount of time spent upon its study in American 
schools, there is no other school subject from which we get more 
barren results than from arithmetic. During the first three years of 
school life it holds a place second only to reading; during the follow- 
ing four years it holds a place second to nothing in point of time or 
attention. After seven years of study, with daily recitations, the 
pupil has only a vague notion of the meaning of arithmetic and its 
applications to the common affairs of life. The average pupil pays 
an exorbitant price for his meager arithmetical knowledge. Can not 
something be done by which we shall get larger returns from the 
outlay, or get the same returns from a smaller outlay? 

This is not the place to discuss primary teaching, but the needed 
reform must begin in the elementary school and reach up into the 
high school. A large percentage of the best teaching is found in the 
elementary schools, yet much of the arithmetic work done in them 
suggests that the pupils are a set of either numskulls or imbeciles. 
Then, in the higher grades much of the work is simply jugglery with 
figures. 

After working with elementary pupils for twenty years, I am con- 
vinced that a marvelous improvement could be wrought in the arith- 



74 High School Manual. 

metic work by placing the proper emphasis on a few cardinal points 
and principles, among them the following: 1, A real appreciation of 
the fact that figures are but symbols ; 2. The meaning of a unit and 
of number; 3. The proper appreciation of place value; 4. A knowl- 
edge of the meaning of a fraction; 5. The use of a few axioms; 6. 
The value and use of the equation ; 7. A clear distinction between the 
process and the operation in the solution of any problem ; 8. The 
superiority of the oral recitation. 

No appeal is made for the so-called science of arithmetic, but an 
appeal for the rational teaching of a subject based upon logic of a 
simple type. Ask the average fifth grade pupil to multiply 275 by 34 
and to begin by multiplying by the 3 tens. By way of answer he 
eyes you with some alarm as to your sanity. When you ask him to 
divide 10.56 by 2.3 and to give you the quotient, he blandly informs 
you that the quotient has in it as many decimal places as those in the 
dividend exceed those in the divisor. The pupil has been required 
to spend more time and effort in memorizing an utterly senseless rule 
than would have been required to get at the logical reason for the 
location of the decimal. Many a pupil passes beyond fractions with- 
out ever learning the force of a denominator. Only ask the average 
pupil just through fractions to divide one fraction by another, then 
listen to his explanation of his work. The work is purely mechanical 
and he takes the results on faith. The statement that the whole 
subject of mathematics rests upon a few axioms has already been 
made. Nevertheless, how rarely one hears an axiom mentioned in 
the arithmetic recitation. 

Milne's Progressive Arithmetic, Third Book, has been adopted by 
the State Board of Education for use in the high school. Any class 
that has had reasonably good teaching below the high school ought 
to be prepared to take up this text at the Metric System, page 158. 
The time necessary to complete the book depends largely upon the 
capacity of the class and the amount of work required in the other 
subjects. In the program of studies prepared by the committee 
already mentioned, and offered in this manual, arithmetic has been 
given three 45-minute periods a week in the first year, and two 
periods a week in the second. This was done for two reasons : first, 
the pupils usually come up to the high school poorly prepared in 
arithmetic; second, some maturity in the pupils is desirable for the 
better appreciation of the more advanced arithmetic. Since a total 



High School Manual. 75 

of but five recitations a week is provided, some teachers might 
prefer to give the subject five times a week during the first year. In 
addition to getting more maturity in the second year, there is a fur- 
ther objection to giving five recitations a week in the first year — the 
fact that five recitations in arithmetic and five in algebra would give 
undue prominence to pure mathematics. 

From the time allotment given to arithmetic in the programs just 
mentioned, Mr. Evans, of the committee, dissents and makes the 
following minority report, which many teachers will no doubt endorse 
heartily : 

"I find myself in accord with the report agreed upon by the Com- 
mittee on High School Programs in every particular except as to the 
course in Arithmetic. 

I am clearly of the opinion that it is not necessary to continue 
Arithmetic in the high school longer than a half year. Either the 
first half of the first year or the latter half of the fourth year is 
sufficient time to review the principles of the entire subject in order 
to fix them permanently in mind. 

Instead of keeping pupils indefinitely upon principles and proc- 
esses, as is now done by some schools, whenever the class has learned 
a principle by applying it, a new topic should be taken up without 
delay. It is time worse than thrown away to keep a class going over 
and over again a process which they have learned fairly well." 

For a full discussion of the aims in teaching arithmetic, the teacher 
is referred to chapters I-V, pages 1-144, of Smith's The Teaching of 
Elementary Mathematics, and to chapter XII, pages 201-256, of 
Young's The Teaching of Mathematics. The latter book deals more 
extendedly with matters of method and with what to emphasize and 
what to pass over lightly. 

Suggestions. 

1. Arithmetic is a branch of an exact science, and has nothing in 
common with the puzzle page of the newspaper. Do not waste valu- 
able time and prostitute a science by working at mathematical puz- 
zles, and have the courage politely to decline all challenges to do so. 
You may safely decline all challenges, if you are prepared to solve 
the legitimate problems that come in your way. The neighborhood 
arithmetic crank may be able to multiply a number of ten figures by 
another of six and at once write out the product from left to right, 



76 High School Manual. 

but do not permit his genius to disturb your logic. The crank might 
find some difficulty in teaching some one else to perform his feats. 

2. Above everything else your teaching should foster cogent think- 
ing. Teachers and pupils are constantly tempted to take short cuts. 
Beware how you use them in teaching. Superintendent S. H. 
Edmunds says with proper emphasis : "In arithmetic, short-methods 
should always be the resultant of reason, and as such they may serve 
a legitimate purpose. But let no one think that a student is, or ever 
will be, a mathematician who makes this means an end." The school- 
master's business is not to teach the six per cent, method of reckon- 
ing interest, but to teach the principles of percentage applied to 
reckoning interest. After the student has mastered these principles, 
he may use them with propriety and profit in actual business. Once 
more in the words of Mr. Edmunds: "The teacher should bear in 
mind at all times that the prime object in teaching is the development 
of power." 

3. Pupils should be trained to make a sharp distinction between the 
process and the operation in the solution of a problem. All the 
logical thinking in the solution of a problem is focused on the process, 
which consists in seeing clearly and at one view the relations of all 
the factors in the problem. The operation is solely a matter of mak- 
ing a few simple calculations in the four fundamentals of arithmetic. 
A student who has been well taught will not undertake any part of 
the operation until he has passed before his mind the whole process 
involved, while the poorly taught student begins by experimenting 
with the factors given and feeling his way toward an answer. 

4. The equation is as important in arithmetic as it is in algebra. 
In so-called written arithmetic, the written equation is the unmis- 
takable evidence that the student sees all the relations of the factors 
involved in his problem before he begins his calculations. 

5. For logical work, for accurate work, for rapid work — all highly 
desirable, — oral recitations in arithmetic are far superior to written 
recitations. Enough written work is desirable and necessary to keep 
pupils familiar with the forms of arithmetical expression. Nothing 
is more conducive to slow and lifeless work than to have all arith- 
metic work done on blackboards or tablets. What is more dreary 
and uninteresting than to watch a half-dozen or more pupils, each 
with a different problem, scrawling their half-digested work on a 
blackboard? Nobody is doing any alert thinking, and there is noth- 



High School Manual. 77 

ing to provoke it. This lifeless manner of teaching arithmetic is 
chiefly the outgrowth of overworked teachers attempting to conduct 
more than one recitation at a time, and of incompetent teachers per- 
mitting the pupils to teach themselves as best they may. 

6. For the teaching of arithmetic orally, the ordinary written 
arithmetic text is all that is needed. On what logical ground has 
arithmetic been divided into two kinds? To confine the oral work 
to the short questions given in the oral text is to defeat in a measure 
one of the prime objects in all teaching, that of gaining the power to 
grasp and hold in the mind the relations existing between several 
factors in a problem. Of course, long and tedious calculations must 
be reduced to written form, and neatness and accuracy should be 
rigidly required. 

7. Perhaps the chief difficulty any student has in solving his arith- 
metic problems is due to his inability to read a problem intelligently. 
Until he can grasp readily the meaning of an English sentence, his 
interpretation of arithmetic will be uncertain. Often the interpreta- 
tion of an arithmetic problem turns upon the grammatical construc- 
tion of the sentence embodying the problem. 

8. Once our arithmetics were burdened with useless topics, such 
as alligation and circulating decimals, but modern texts have been 
pruned of most of such topics. However, there is, in the opinion of 
many practical teachers, need of further pruning. The teacher will 
find a brief discussion of this subject on pages 219-223 of Young's 
book already mentioned. 

9. Very recently there has arisen in some places a demand for an 
arithmetic adapted to particular vocations. The laws of arithmetic, 
as of all other branches of mathematics, are universal and eternal. 
There is no need of an arithmetic prepared especially for any particu- 
lar vocation; all that is necessary is to adapt the principles and laws 
of arithmetic to whatever vocation has need to use them. This is the 
business of the teacher. The teacher in the midst of an agricultural 
people has only to adapt the arithmetic to that people in the terms 
of farm life. The same would be true of the teacher in a mining 
section, a trucking section, or a manufacturing section. The same 
principles and laws run through the calculations of the farmer, the 
merchant, the lawyer, the day laborer, and all others. They differ 
only in their adaptation. The same laws of harmony run through 
all music, whether it be that produced by the trained choir or by the 



78 High School Manual. 

man behind the plow ; the laws of physics are universal, but they may 
be adapted to build a cantilever bridge or to swing a gate. Concrete 
work is necessary to all good teaching in arithmetic, and the local 
surroundings of the school furnish the material for the concrete 
teaching. The country roads and lanes furnish ample opportunity to 
apply the teaching of linear measure, the new-ground clearings and 
field ditches for the teaching of cubic measure, the fields and gar- 
dens for teaching land measure, the field crops for teaching book- 
keeping, percentage, and interest. Other opportunities without 
number are offered in the vicinity of every schoolhouse. 

BUSINESS METHODS. 

Teller & Brown's Business Methods is one of the State adopted 
high school books. This book is intended to give to students not 
going beyond the high school some knowledge of ordinary business 
practices. The book should be offered only in the last year of any 
high school, unless studied in connection with commercial arithmetic 
in the second year. Not more than a half year need be given to it. 

ALGEBRA. 

What is algebra and why is it taught are two important questions. 
Both are discussed in chapter VII. pages 161-174, of Smith's The 
Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. Upon the answers to these 
questions depend the answers to three other questions — when to 
begin the study of algebra, how to teach it. and how long to con- 
tinue it. 

Accurate and comprehensive definitions are not so common as one 
might at first suppose. However, as Prof. Young remarks, one may 
without doubt know a thing when he sees it without being able to 
give an unassailable definition. All agree that algebra embraces the 
generalizations of arithmetic. The writer just mentioned sets down 
as the first of the special functions of algebra, "To establish more 
carefully and extend the theoretic processes of arithmetic." The 
third function he sets down is; "To' develop the equation and to apply 
it in the solution of problems of a wide range of interest, including 
large classes of problems often treated in arithmetic, as well as to 
problems relative to geometry, to physics, and other natural sciences." 
It is difficult to draw the line of demarcation between arithmetic and 
algebra on the one hand, and between algebra and higher mathe- 
matics and the sciences on the other. Prof. Smith puts it thus : 



High School Manual. 79 

"The child who meets the expression 2 X ( ?) — 8, in the first grade, 
has touched the elements of algebra. The student of algebra who is 
called upon to simplify 

(2+V/-3") (2-y/-T) 
is facing merely a problem in arithmetic." 

Prof. L. T. Baker very happily says : "The successful prosecution 
of the subject depends much on the manner of presenting it to the 
beginner. It should not be introduced to the student as something 
new and strange. The treatment of algebra as a dissociated topic 
unrelated to previous number work is responsible for many of the 
difficulties and discouragements of the beginner. Arithmetic, alge- 
bra, and geometry should be so treated, and the transition from one 
to the other should be such, that the student may be made conscious 
of the unity of mathematics as a science. We have made one step 
in this direction by introducing algebraic methods into the arithmetic 
of the grades." 

For a discussion of the typical parts of algebra, the teacher is 
referred to chapter VIII, pages 175-223, of Smith's The Teaching 
of Elementary Mathematics; for a discussion of the teaching of 
algebra, see chapter XIV, pages 292-326, of Young's The Teaching 
of Mathematics. 

Suggestions. 

1. In the majority of our South Carolina schools, algebra is taken 
up at the beginning of the eighth school year. But when arithmetic 
has been taught as indicated in the suggestions in this manual, espe- 
cially with respect to the use of the axioms and the equation, pupils 
will be fairly familiar with the elemental processes in algebra by the 
end of the sixth year. With the proper teaching of arithmetic and. 
the proper introduction to algebra, the latter could be taken up with 
propriety by the middle of the seventh year. By taking up algebra 
a half-year in advance of taking up Latin, students taking both these 
subjects would be saved the overload of taking up two new subjects 
at once. On the other hand, in the average school the seventh grade 
is overcrowded with studies to a degree that makes the addition of 
algebra undesirable and unwise. 

2. Wells' Algebra for Secondary Schools, the State adopted text, 
contains forty-one chapters — i58 pages, exclusive of the index and 
answers. For the convenience of those schools desiring to end the 
study of algebra with the completion of quadratics, the book has 



80 High School Manual. 

been divided into Parts I and II. The division is made on reaching 
chapter XXIII, Variables and Limits, on page 304. The average 
school running nine months and giving daily recitations of 45 minutes 
will find enough work in Part I for the first and second years, if 
all the problems and examples are solved by the class. Should 
algebra be given the second half of the seventh year, the class by the 
end of the second high school year ought to reach chapter XXIX, 
Part II, Undetermined Coefficients. 

3. From chapter XXIX to the 'end of Part II will be found as 
much advanced algebra as can be handled in the allotted time in the 
fourth high school year, amid the most favorable circumstances. 

4. One-teacher high schools will find the first eighteen chapters of 
Part I (to quadratics) as much as can be done in the first and second 
years. 

5. Teachers are advised to omit some of the theoretical discussions 
given in Part II, leaving them for the college course. Chapter XIV 
of Young's book will aid in determining which to omit. The Report 
of the Committee of Ten recommends the omission of the progres- 
sions, series, and logarithms. 

6. Factoring has been felicitiously called the multiplication table 
of algebra. Much constant drill in factoring is essential to its ready 
use. Here as in all other parts of algebra rapid oral work is desira- 
ble. The types are reviewed by Prof. Smith in his book already 
mentioned. 

7. Almost every algebra clings to at least a few of the antiquated 
and worthless problems of the hare and hound type. Teachers 
would do well to substitute for all such, problems of more merit. 
Mathematical antics are not the goal of algebra study. 

PLANE GEOMETRY. 

"'Geometry, perhaps more than any other subject of secondary 
school mathematics, offers opportunity for attaining all the ends of 
the teaching of mathematics, and hence there is less occasion to 
regard any one of them as specially the goal of geometry. It gives 
ample occasion for exact reasoning, for real induction applied to 
very simple data, for correlation with other work, with drawing, 
geography, and the physical sciences as well as with algebra, for 
exercise of the space intuition, for practical applications, for drill in 
numerical computation, for training to habits of neatness and exacti- 



High School Manual. 81 

tude, and for the cultivation of the powers of precise thought and 
expression." Perhaps every successful teacher of geometry would 
subscribe to this statement of the practical and cultural value of 
geometry. Over against all this, it is but simple truth to say that 
geometry may be so ill taught and so ill learned as to disgust the 
student with all subsequent mathematical study. 

Geometry is well adapted to any one of several grades of school 
work. Concrete geometry is now taught through the grades of the 
elementary school ; inventional geometry is begun in the elementary 
school and is often carried into the high school ; demonstrative geom- 
etry is commonly confined to the high school. Plane geometry in 
most high schools is assigned to the third year, after two years of 
algebra. From the nature of algebra in its relation to geometry, it 
is evident that plane geometry might well run parallel with algebra 
in the second high school year. Indeed, many of the best teachers 
so arrange the course in mathematics. The chief argument against 
this arrangement is that it prolongs the algebra study practically 
through tbe four years, if the advanced algebra is given. 

Chapters X, XI and XII of Smith's The Teaching of Elementary 
Mathematics are devoted to geometry and embrace these subjects: 
What is geometry? General suggestions for teaching; Basis of 
geometry; Typical parts of geometry. Chapter XIII, pages 257- 
291, of Young's The Teaching of Mathematics is given to the teach- 
ing of geometry. 

Suggestions. 

1. Five books of plane geometry with a reasonable proportion of 
the originals can not be completed properly in less time than thirty- 
six weeks, with daily recitations of 45 minutes. 

2. Wells' Nezv Plane and Solid Geometry, the State adopted text, 
has a page of suggestions to teachers which should be carefully 
studied by the teacher in connection with the Preface. 

3. See that your class begins geometry in the right way. Do not 
assign the first lesson and leave the students to learn it as best they 
can. Start by showing the students just what is to be done and how 
to attack the lesson. Go very slowly for several weeks. When the 
first theorem is reached draw the figure accurately, in geometrical 
terms state exactly what is given and exactly what is to be proved, 
give the class time to determine the beginning point in the demon- 
stration, and see to it that they begin at that point. As the demon- 



82 High School Manual. 

stration proceeds let the steps be set down on the board where all can 
see them, keep this up until the point to be proved is reached, and be 
sure that they recognize the goal in the proof. Next, erase the 
work, re-letter the figure or turn it around, and go through the 
demonstration without writing down anything but what was given 
and what was to be proved. About five theorems thus proved will 
give the class an intelligent start. 

•i. Designate each line and angle by a letter or figure. Do not 
waste time talking about line AB when it can be designated as line 
A, or angle BAC instead of angle a. On pages 105-107 of Smith's 
The Teaching of Geometry will be found some helpful suggestions 
about the lettering of a figure. 

5. Prof. W. K. Tate makes this observation : "The pupil usually 
finds difficulty with his first demonstrations. Proving a theorem is 
a process of dropping it back on axioms and definitions. Let him 
see that the first theorems are difficult merely because they are so 
slightly removed from axioms and definitions that it is hard to make 
them simpler.** 

6. Do not permit students to memorize the demonstration of a 
theorem. If students are required or permitted to write out their 
demonstrations on the recitation, it will be difficult to keep them 
from memorizing them. Possibly the best geometry students are 
those who when given a theorem draw an accurate figure, letter it 
intelligently, write down on the board a correct statement of what is 
known, make a clear restatement of what is to be proved, then take 
up a pointer and proceed to show step by step what they are doing, 
writing down as they go each equation, until the proof is completed. 
In this way every member of the class is working alertly at the same 
thing and at the same time, and the student at the board is doing 
some logical thinking while on his feet. 

7. Whenever possible give your geometry work a practical appli- 
cation. Chapters XIV-XXI of Smith's The Teaching of Geometry 
furnishes rather copious illustrations. 

SOLID GEOMETRY. 

1. Solid geometry is assigned to the fourth high school year. 
One-half year with daily recitations of 45 minutes is usually regarded 
as sufficient time to devote to the subject. 

2. It is recommended that not all students be required to take 
solid geometry. There is a rather small number of high school stu- 



High School Manual. 83 

dents who will not profit enough by its study to justify the time 
necessary to do the work. 

TRIGONOMETRY. 

It is earnestly recommended that trigonometry be not offered in a 
four-year high school based on a seven-year elementary school. The 
reasons are obvious : 1. The student going to college will find trig- 
onometry in his college course where it can be better taught than in 
the high school ; 2. The student not going to college needs many 
other subjects far more than he needs trigonometry; 3. Almost any 
student with high school arithmetic, algebra, solid geometry, and 
trigonometry to his credit has taken a course in mathematics out of 
all proportion to»his language, science, and other courses. 

Books Suggested. 

Smith's The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics. Mac- 

millan. $1.00. 
Smith's The Teaching of Geometry. Ginn. $1.00. 
Young's The Teaching of Mathematics. Longmans. 

$150. 
Report of the Committc of Ten. Am. Book Co. $0.30. 



84 High School Manual. 



SCIENCE. 



Spencer places the study of natural science above that of every 
other subject. In his enumeration of the benefits emanating from 
a study of science, he emphasizes these : The preservation of human 
life and the enjoyment of human life depend upon a knowledge of 
science; a knowledge of physiology and anatomy and the laws of 
health preserves our lives ; and in all the industries of men the 
sciences serve as the bases. Spencer's aims of education are usually 
regarded as severely utilitarian. This notion is in a measure errone- 
ous. He states very clearly that acquirement of every kind has two 
values — value as knowledge and value as discipline. His contention 
is that science is superior to other subjects as discipline, inasmuch 
as we deal with things instead of words. This view is held by many 
men in no sense partial to the sciences. 

President Eliot (Educational Reform, 110-111) says: "The last 
subject for which I claim admission to the magic circle of the liberal 
arts is natural science. All the subjects which the sixteenth century 
decided were liberal, and all the subjects which I have heretofore 
discussed, are studied in books ; but natural science is to be studied 
not in books but in things. The student of languages, letters, phi- 
losophy, mathematics, history, or political economy, reads books, or 
listens to the words of his teacher. The student of natural science 
scrutinizes, touches, weighs, measures, analyzes, dissects, and 
watches things. By these exercises his powers of observation and 
judgment are trained, and he acquires the precious habit of observ- 
ing the appearances, transformations, and processes of nature. Like 
the hunter and the artist, he has open eyes and educated judgment 
in seeing. He is at home in some large tract of nature's domain. 
Finally, he acquires the scientific method of study in the field, where 
that method was originally perfected." 

In all this there is no attempt to prove the superiority of the 
sciences over other subjects. All that is desired is to secure merited 
recognition. The fundamental distinctions between the humanities 
and the natural sciences have been epitomized somewhat as follows : 
"The humanities deal with causes and effects due in part to subjec- 
tive or psychic forces, while the natural sciences deal with causes 



High School Manual. 85 

and effects due to mechanic and chemic forces, wholly uninfluenced 
by man/ The mental effect of the study of natural law awakens 
enthusiasm, discards authority, and trusts to reason in searching for 
natural law." The alchemist, hunting the elixir of life and attempt- 
ing to transmute the baser metals into gold, discovered natural law 
and became a scientist — a chemist. The astrologer, seeking signs in 
the heavens for his guidance in affairs earthly, discovered system 
and natural law and became a scientist — an astronomer. 

These differences thoroughly justify the statement made, in the 
early pages of this manual that no curriculum can be called well- 
balanced, unless it has in it representatives from more than one 
group of subjects. 

Our South Carolina high schools are notably weak in their science 
work. Very little science is attempted, and most of what is 
attempted is not pursued in a scientific manner or in a scientific 
spirit. Our students are growing up unfamiliar with the most com- 
mon phenomena all about them. Many a student with but little 
taste for any of the humanities has in him a latent or dormant 
aptitude for reading nature's book, if he but had the opportunity and 
the incentive. No greater mistake could be made (and it has been 
repeatedly made) than to brand any student dull or inferior because 
he does not manifest a taste or an aptitude for the languages. Two 
students with equal mental capacity and acumen may differ widely 
in their tastes, their individualities, and their dexterities. One stu- 
dent might manifest a decided taste and cleverness for Shakespeare, 
and another the same taste and cleverness for Victor Hugo. Would 
it be reasonable on this basis to adjudge either student superior in 
capacity or acumen? 

It might just as well be said here that there are some otherwise 
strong students whose mental make-up precludes any hope of their 
ever becoming proficient in the natural sciences. It w r ould be as 
unwise to compel every high school student to take a four-year 
course in science as it would be to compel every student to take four 
years in ancient language. When the educational world comes to 
recognize and admit this fundamental truth, it will mark an epoch in 
educational progress and adjustment. 

Elementary science offers a rich field for the high school. Physi- 
ology, botany, physical geography, physics, and chemistry are all 
excellent subjects. The flora of the State is varied and inviting; 



86 High School Manual. 

public heaith and public sanitation have become a national battle- 
cry; our manufacturing industries are robust infants; agriculture of 
all types has taken on a new meaning and interest ; and new enter- 
prises calling for the applications of scientific knowledge are being 
born every day. All these call for training in science and scientific 
methods. The execrable teaching of science by mere sciolists has 
done incalculable harm to the whole subject. Any science to give its 
full value must be taught in a scientific way. The beginning of that 
way is to study things, not to read about things. One of the excel- 
lences of science as an educational instrument is that it gives enthu- 
siasm and inspiration to teacher and students alike. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

From a utilitarian viewpoint, perhaps the most important science 
of the high school group is human physiology. "The term 'physi- 
ology' as commonly used to designate a special course of instruction 
in secondary schools refers to study of the human body from the 
combined standpoints of anatomy (structure), pure physiology 
(functions of organs), and hygiene (laws and conditions of health)." 
The subject at once appeals to every individual, since everyone is 
directly concerned about the structure of his body, the functions of 
the organs, and the laws of health. Many teachers of science link 
the study of high school physiology with that of zoology, and prop- 
erly so. However, in this State such an arrangement is impractica- 
ble, since exceedingly few schools teach zoology. Ritchie's I hi man 
Physiology, the State adopted text, seems to have been prepared to 
meet conditions such as our-. 

Physiology is placed in the first year of the high school, and 
teachers will find in the State adopted text ample material for 36 
weeks with 45-minute recitations three times a week, or for 20 
weeks with daily recitations. 

Teachers are urged to treat the subject as an elementary science. 
Do not make out of the work a parrot-like recital of the statements 
made in the textbook. To do so is a waste of time and a degrading 
of the subject. The average high school teacher will need consid- 
erable guidance to teach physiology as a science. Chapter XII of 
Lloyd & Bigelow's The Teaching of Biology is devoted to the teach- 
ing of human physiology. On pages 465-472 will be found a dis- 
cussion of the essentials of the subject, that is. the topics to be 
emphasized and those to be passed over lightly. In the same chapter 



High School Manual. 87 

(XII) is a sane and dispassionate discussion of "temperance instruc- 
tion," which, I am sure, will be exceedingly welcome to most teachers 
of physiology. Some very helpful paragraphs will be found in the 
Report of the Committee of Ten, pages 158-161. 

Recently so much emphasis has been placed upon diseases — their 
origin, their effects, and the preventives, that there is some danger 
of making these topics extremely distasteful to young students. It 
is all very well to assert that young people should be taught the 
whole truth about diseases (and they should), but to be done effect- 
ively it must be done judiciously. The normal boy or girl in good 
health takes no delight or interest in a bald study of diseases; to 
either the subject in itself is repulsive. 

The Pilz life size sexless manikin can be bought for $13.50. 

The Minder manikin, 20 inches high, can be bought for $'3. 75. 

BOTANY. 

But a few years ago the little study given to botany was generally 
looked upon as an accomplishment, chiefly for girls. Since that time 
the subject has come to be given the dignity of a science giving both 
knowledge and discipline to the student. The achievements and 
contributions of the great Agassiz alone ought to place botany above 
the suggestion of being a mere accomplishment. Next in impor- 
tance to the study of animal life is that of plant life. The oppor- 
tunity offered by botany for genuine scientific investigation is almost 
limitless. 

The Committee of Ten placed botany in the second year of the 
high school, but the subject is readily adaptable to any year in the 
high school. In the program of studies given in this manual, botany 
is given in the first year. This was done for two good reasons : first, 
because in the other years of the high school had to be placed other 
subjects of science too difficult to be given earlier; second, the 
material for a study of botany is so plentiful and so accessible as to 
make it practicable as a first-year study. Further, botany is but a 
continuation of the nature study given in the elementary school. 

Prof. A. C. Moore has given a few of the ultimate practical objects 
to be attained by the student : 

1. A personal acquaintance with a considerable number of plants 
belonging to all the great groups, and the ability to recognize them 



88 High School Manual. 

at sight in their natural environment — not to know them merely as 
laboratory specimens or by textbook descriptions. 

2. Some observational or experimental knowledge of the relations 
of plants to light, water, and soil, and their adaptation to meet vary- 
ing conditions. 

3. A general knowledge of the principles of plant breeding, and 
its bearing on agriculture and horticulture. 

4. A knowledge of the main physiological facts in the life history 
of common plants. 

5. From an economic standpoint, a knowledge of the sources of his 
food, clothing, shelter, and fuel, and the main botanical relations of 
the plants which produce them. 

Chapters III-IX. pages 62-228, of Lloyd & Bigelow's The Teach- 
ing of Biology, treat the entire subject of teaching botany in the 
secondary school. The value of the study, the course of study, the 
methods of teaching it. and the laboratory equipment are all dis- 
cussed. Further suggestions may be found on pages 151-153 of the 
Report of the Committee of Ten. 

The lack of laboratory equipment often deters the inexperienced 
teacher from undertaking botany. Some equipment is absolutely 
necessary to effective work, but excellent work can be done with 
very small equipment. A students' dissecting microscope, and a 
students' dissecting set consisting of five instruments can be bought 
for $2.50 from the Central Scientific Company, Chicago, Illinois. 
Each student will need this equipment. On pages 212-215 of Lloyd 
& Bigelow is given in detail all manner of necessary equipment and 
its care. It may be well to add that the high school can not do much 
with structural botany. That belongs to more advanced work. The 
thing to be remembered above all else is — study plants, not pictures 
and descriptions in a book. 

Bailey's Elementary Botany, the State adopted text, gives the basis 
of all the work that can be done in 36 weeks, with daily recitations. 
Do not attempt to run through the book in less than a year. 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

To the general subject of geography the Committee of Ten in its 
Report gives nearly fifty pages, considerably more space than to 
English, French, German, and mathematics combined. Perhaps no 
other subject in recent years has grown more in popular favor and 



High School Manual. 89 

with educators than physical geography. The favor with which the 
subject has been received has not outstripped the growth and devel- 
opment of the subject as a science. No better evidence of this need 
be offered than the numerous editions and revisions through which 
the various textbooks have rapidly passed. As two of three reasons 
for writing his third book on physical geography, only eight years 
after his second book, Prof. Tarr gives "the growth of the science of 
physical geography and the rapid advance in rank which the subject 
has won for itself in the schools." His third reason for writing his 
third book so close upon the second is equally significant — "the new 
ideas and new methods which have come to the author" in so short 
a time. 

Not a few teachers complain that they find physical geography 
difficult to teach. The whole subject deals with things about us at 
all times — air, water, and earth. Most of the material lies close at 
hand, the phenomena are easily observed, and the practical value of 
the subject is easily recognized by the student. Such a subject, if 
properly approached, ought not to be difficult beyond any other 
ordinary subject. There can be but little doubt that much of the 
difficulty experienced by some teachers is due to the unpreparedness 
of the students to do the work, and the wrong approach to the sub- 
ject by the teacher. Students below the second high school year are 
not mature enough or trained enough to undertake physical geog- 
raphy. When the study is begun it should be done in the scientific 
spirit and in the scientific way — examining specimens, making 
observations and comparisons, gathering data, and watching for 
results. A mere textbook study and textbook recitation in physical 
geography is inadequate, although most recent texts are well sup- 
plied with teaching helps. 

The scope and purpose of physical geography are tersely stated 
in less than two pages of the Introductory to Tarr's New Physical 
Geography, the State adopted text. The arrangement of the book 
and the reasons therefor are set forth clearly in the preface. At the 
close of each of the nineteen sections of the text is a list of Sug- 
gestions which will serve as an excellent guide to the teacher in the 
matter of practical demonstrative work. The Appendixes, pages 
397-441. are full of the very best aids for teacher and student. 

Since physical geography has become physiography, it "is fast 
becoming a laboratory science." Appendix J in Tarr*s text deals 



90 High School Manual. 

with laboratory equipment. The teacher must be guided by his 
judgment as to what equipment he can profitably use, and by the 
means at his command as to what to purchase. A little equipment is 
essential to good work. The maps suggested in section 4 of Appen- 
dix J are among the most useful pieces of equipment. A set of 
physical maps, such as Rand, McNally & Company's Physical Wall 
Maps, are very necessary. Good stereoscopic views are valuable. 
Underwood & Underwood, of Xew York, furnish good stereoscopes 
at 90 cents, and good views at 10 cents to 16 cents. There ought to 
be one stereoscope for every four members of the class. Keeler's 
Relief Model ($16.00) is a valuable piece of apparatus for teaching 
topography, one of the subjects difficult to teach from ordinary maps, 
no matter how good. The teacher should make good use of the 
maps and illustrations given in the text. The Journal of Geography 
(Madison, Wisconsin, $0.90) and The National Geographic Maga- 
zine (Washington, D. C, $2.50) will furnish much inspiration to the 
teacher. 

Field work is indispensable to good geography teaching. Super- 
intendent Frank Evans thus values it: "The faculty and habit of 
observation can be best cultivated by directing attention to physical 
phenomena occurring and the natural forces at work now all around 
us." Appendix K of Tarr's text gives some suggestions as to how 
to conduct field work. 

A full year of 36 weeks, with daily recitations of -15 minute.-, will 
be necessary to complete Tarr in a satisfactory manner. Skimming 
through the book with two or three lessons a week will prove wholly 
unsatisfactory. 

COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Among the newer subjects of science suitable to high school work, 
it is doubtful if any is superior to commercial geography. Very 
few of us realize the mighty influence that commerce has had upon 
the civilization of the world. Trade and traffic and barter are terms 
as familiar to man as home and family and neighbors. Cut out com- 
merce from the world's history, much of our achievement would 
be barrenness. Languages would have remained mere dialects ; 
governments would have been provincial in character and local in 
extent ; the missionary w r ould have knocked in vain at the doors of 
heathendom ; and war would be the chief occupation of men today. 



High School Manual. <J1 

Supply men with the necessities of life and you win them ; give them 
the comforts and luxuries and you refine them. 

A hundred elements enter into the complex problems of com- 
merce : the land — its position, fertility, mineral wealth, and products ; 
the water — its situation and adaptability to commercial purposes ; the 
climate — temperature and rainfall ; man — his genius, his industry, 
and his constructiveness. Discovering the needs and wants of peo- 
ple, opening markets for goods, and establishing modes and routes of 
transportation are scientific problems of world-wide importance. 
Commercial geography is rich in both content and disciplinary value., 
and is well worthy of a place beside physical geography and ele- 
mentary economics. 

The State Board of Education has adopted Robinson's Commer- 
cial Geography as the high school text. It may be used in either the 
second or third year, preferably the third. It should be given 36 
weeks, with daily recitations of 45 minutes. 

PHYSICS. 

The following four paragraphs were written by Prof. W. H. 
Morton, of Converse College: 

"The dictum, 'better no instruction in physics at all. if not by the 
quantitative laboratory methods,' has been accepted in the recent 
past to the practical exclusion of the subject from high schools and 
academies in the South. A few words as to the propriety of intro- 
ducing physics into the high schools of South Carolina, seem called 
for. The recommendations of the Committee of Ten and other 
friends of science teaching in secondary schools were designed to 
stimulate improvement in facilities and methods as fast as possible, 
not to exclude the subjects where ideal conditions were unattainable. 
At any rate there has been, in the past few years, a distinct reaction 
from the extreme view referred to and a recognition of the value of 
descriptive instruction. A well equipped laboratory, a specially 
trained teacher with ample time at his disposal, and a school schedule 
allowing the student four or five hours per week for the subject, is 
the ideal for the course in physics. In the presence of such condi- 
tions as are likely to obtain in South Carolina high schools, is it 
worth while to attempt the subject? Space is lacking for discussion 
of the matter, but the conclusion is clear, that it is not only worth 
while, but that there is an imperative call for the introduction of 



92 High School Manual. 

phvsics. Such instruction can be given at a cost within the possi- 
bilities of any school, as will clarify and broaden the student's out- 
look upon nature, will inculcate the habit of observation and develop 
the ability to observe, and to bring the observations into line with the 
simple physical concepts. Valuable aid can be given to the compre- 
hension of other subjects, and many ideas lodged which bear mate- 
rially upon health, comfort, and many forms of business. These 
ends can be attained, if the teacher is in earnest, is friendly toward 
the subject, as well prepared to teach it as he is to teach other things 
in which he has fair success, and is willing to employ such manual 
skill as the average man possesses, for a few extra hours in the 
course of the session." 

"To deprive the student of the opportunity to study physics is to 
cut him off from a source of culture, which our civilization is 
increasingly demanding of every citizen, whether he be college-bred 
or not, and this deprivation the student will in after years perceive 
and with good reason resent." 

"In general, the method found to yield best results, all things con- 
sidered, is to have the experiment follow the text. There should be 
a statement on the part of the teacher, in terms intelligible to the 
student, of the principle to be illustrated by the experiment, then a 
verification by the use of apparatus. The experiment will clear up 
any uncertainty in the understanding of the statement of the law or 
principle. Stress, in teaching mechanics, Newton's Laws until they 
are ineffaceably impressed. The third law will give the most diffi- 
culty. It is not always easy for the student to discover the reaction 
in cases in illustration. Recognize the fundamental character of 
inertia, energy, the principle of work." 

"It will be impossible to go into detail with reference to the other 
branches of the subject. It should be said, however, that they offer 
even a more attractive field for the exercise of devoted ingenuity. 
Mention must be made of the fact that the poverty-hampered teacher 
is not without his compensations. There is such a thing as being 
encumbered and partly stifled by a superabundance of apparatus 
ready to hand. The teacher who is furnished with everything need- 
ful knows little or nothing of the joy of making things, and it is a 
question whether he can manipulate as successfully as he who builds 
from the ground up. Then, too, the teacher who contrives his own 
apparatus can claim more intimate fellowship with the master work- 



High School Manual. 



93 



ers and discoverers, who, for the most part, have been handicapped 
in like fashion." 

No satisfactory work can be done in physics without some appa- 
ratus. Many of our high schools are well able and willing to pro- 
vide all the apparatus necessary, and the teachers would be only too 
glad to get it, but just what is needed and the cost are not known. 
For the convenience of such schools and teachers, the Central Scien- 
tific Company, of Chicago, has prepared the following set of physics 
apparatus, and will furnish it complete for $80.00 net. 



PHYSICAL SET NO. 1 
Properties of Matter. 
Meter Stick $ 



Adhesion Disc 

Prince Rupert Drops. 

Capillary Tubes 

Inertia Apparatus 



30 
27 

25 
45 
80 



Heat. 

Air Thermometer. . . 

Compound Bar 

Palm Glass 

Conductometer. . . 
Alcohol Lamp, 4 oz, 
Tripod for same 



17 
95 
45 
35 
27 
22 



$2 07 
Mechanics. 

Collision Balls $ 3 50 

Centrifugal Hoop 2 25 

Equilibrium Tubes 75 

Bottle Imp and Jar 80 

Siphon 22 

Lift Pump 1 65 

Force Pump 2 00 

Hydrometer 45 

Barometer Tube, Cup and 

Pipette 55 



$ 2 41 
Magnetism. 

Bar Magnet $ 22 

Iron Turnings 11 

Magnetic Needle 65 

Compas, 40 m. m 25 



$ 1 23 



$12 17 
Pneumatics. 

Air Pump $22 25 

Bell Glass, 1 Gallon 1 10 



Hand and Bladder Glass.. 
Sheet Rubber, 1 sq. ft.... 
Madgeburg Hemispheres. 
Guinea and Feather Tube . 



. 1 00 

28 

. 4 55 

. 6 65 

$35 83 



Electricity. 

Friction Rod, wax $ 11 

Pith Balls, 1 dozen 25 

Electroscope 70 

Toepler-Holtz Electric Ma- 
chine, with attachment and 
shocking handles and Brass 

Chains 24 00 

Leyden Jar, pt 1 25 

Discharger 1 00 

Simple Cell 18 



$27 49 



94 High School Manual. 

Sound. Light. 

Tuning Fork $ 17 Concave and Convex Mirror. $ 50 

Sonometer 4 00 Kaleidoscope 55 

Violin Bow 80 Prism, 3 inch 25 

Demonstration Set Lenses.. 1 25 

$ 4 97 Color Tops. 1 dozen 90 

Iceland Spar, small 45 



$ 3 90 



SUMMARY. 



Properties of Matter $ 2 07 

Mechanics 12 17 

Pneumatics 35 83 

Heat 2 41 

Magnetism 123 

Electricity 27 49 

Sound 4 97 

Light 3 90 



$90 07 
Less 10 per cent. Discount 9 01 



$81 06 
Boxing 2 25 

Total $83 31 

Price, Complete Set, as above, F. O. B. Chicago $80 00 

In the program of studies physics is given in the third year, leav- 
ing the fourth for chemistry. Four-year schools not offering chem- 
istry might do well to put physics in the fourth year instead. The 
State Board has adopted no textbook in physics. Millikan & Gale's 
First Course in Physics (Ginn & Co.) is suggested as an excellent 
one. The above set of apparatus is adapted to this text. A List of 
Laboratory Experiments, published separately, may be used in con- 
nection with the text. 

Smith and Hall's The Teaching of Chemistry and Physics is 
recommended to teachers. The second half of the book, pages 
233-371, is devoted to the teaching of physics in the secondary school. 



High School Manual. 95 

CHEMISTRY. 

(Written by Dr. J. E. Mills, Consulting and Analytical Chemist, 

Columbia, S. C.) 

Should chemistry be taught in the high schools? The answer is 
vital. That knowledge which fits a child best for life is that which 
enables him best to understand and to appreciate his surroundings. 
The training which fits a child best for life is that which trains him 
best to see truly, to think clearly, and to apply his knowledge. 

What is chemistry? In what way does chemistry touch the life 
of the average man? Will a knowledge of chemistry prove of bene- 
fit to the ordinary laborer, or farmer, or mechanic, or business man? 
Such questions have been often asked, and my reply to the ques- 
tioner is, ''Name anything about you with which chemistry has noth- 
ing to do." It makes little difference as to the reply — cloth, paper, 
glass, wood, brick, the body itself, the food that we eat, and the earth 
upon which we walk, — chemistry teaches of the constitution of these 
bodies, of the way in which they are made. For the things by which 
we are surrounded, and we ourselves, are made up in a wonderful 
way from a very few simpler bodies. Just as brick, stone, wood, 
and mortar can be used to make a city full of houses each different 
from the other, so a few simpler bodies are so combined as to make 
all of the wonderful world with which we are in everyday contact. 
Surely it is interesting to know something of the things of which this 
wonderful world is made, and something of the way in which they 
are put together, and something of the changes which they undergo. 
For fire does not destroy wood, or coal, or oil — it merely changes 
them. The food we eat becomes a part of our body. Similarly, 
trees and plants grow because they absorb the necessary food from 
the soil and from the air. Some knowledge of these wonders make 
life broader and fuller of meaning and of pleasure. Is it right that 
students should be allowed to pass out of the high school and enter 
upon their life-work in total ignorance of the structure and changes 
of the entire world about them? 

Chemistry in the high school Should be made a wonderfully inter- 
esting study, and a study that would contribute a lasting interest to 
life; but this is only one phase of the subject. Each man's present 
life — as he lives it under the conditions of our modern civilization — 
has been made possible only by the knowledge of chemistry which 
the world has come to possess. A knowledge of chemistry has made 



96 High School Manual. 

possible the production of iron from its ores, and every step of civi- 
lization has been dependent upon that knowledge. But that industry 
is only one of a hundred industries dependent upon a knowledge of 
chemistry for their existence or for their present perfection. The 
production of copper, silver, lead, tin, and zinc from their ores, and 
the winning of gold, are dependent upon chemical processes. The 
chemist explains how best to produce brick, cement, mortar, and 
concrete for the purposes in view. He supervises the manufacture 
of glass, paints, and dye stuffs. He is a necessary adjunct to the 
sugar refinery and the soap factory. Not alone for the material of 
the printing press, but for the paper and the ink as well, a debt is 
due the chemist. He aids the physician with his drugs and the far- 
mer with his fertilizer-. To his knowledge is largely entrusted the 
administration of pure food laws and the inspection of drinking 
water. These are only examples. Literally in a hundred ways the 
knowledge of the chemist touches the home life of nearly every 
man, woman, and child. Not all of the chemical processes involved, 
and the numerous others, can be taught in any given high school 
But a foundation for further study can and should be laid, and some 
of the simpler and locally more important processes should be taught. 

There is yet another way in which a knowledge of chemistry may 
prove directly useful in the home or in the daily lives of people. 
A little knowledge of chemistry enables one to understand far better, 
than is otherwise possible, the valuable information given in the 
many useful bulletins, reports, and magazine and newspaper articles 
on such subjects as health, hygiene, sanitation, pure and impure 
foods, pure and impure paints, patent medicines, fertilizers, scientific 
farming, insecticides, disinfectants, and wood preservatives. A 
little knowledge of these matters is often the means of saving many 
dollars and even human lives. Sometimes, too, it is useful to know 
how to remove a stain, or to remember that the antidote for carbolic 
acid is alcohol. 

I have argued that chemistry has a place in the high school cur- 
riculum, because, first, it teaches th# constitution and changes of the 
world about us, and the information adds a new interest to, and a 
new appreciation of, life; second, the advance in chemical knowledge 
is felt in a hundred ways in every home today ; third, chemistry gives 
much specifically useful information; fourth, chemistry, if properly 



High School Manual. 97 

taught, is one of the very best subjects to train the pupil to sec for 
himself, to think for himself, and to do for himself. 

Chemistry can be successfully taught in your high school, if you 
can provide a suitable science teacher and a proper laboratory equip- 
ment. The difficulties in the way of accomplishing this may not be 
so great as you have supposed. 

In selecting a teacher even for so technical a subject as chemistry, 
the personality of the teacher counts for more than his knowledge. 
Granting suitable personality in the teacher, the more technical 
knowledge, skill, and experience he has the better, and equally impor- 
tant is his ability to teach. There is little more to be said. In any 
given case the selection of a teacher narrows down to a consideration 
of the special fitness of particular individuals. Rigid economy in the 
salaries offered results inevitably in the long run in a sacrifice of 
efficiency. 

The laboratory equipment can be made as expensive as desired, 
and in many cases considerable expense is justifiable; but an expen- 
sive equipment is not an absolute necessity. If only a few dollars 
are available, a start can be made. Have a set of shelves and some 
tables made. Funnel stands and test-tube racks can be made by any 
carpenter. Iron rods let into the desks are excellent substitutes for 
retort stands. Most of the necessary chemicals cost not over ten 
cents a pound. Test-tubes, beakers, and funnels are very cheap. 
Often thirty per cent, can be saved by duty free importations requir- 
ing about three months for delivery. In short, the absolutely neces- 
sary equipment is not expensive. A poor equipment does require 
more time and skill on the part of the teacher. The proper adjust- 
ment of the quality and quantity of chemicals and apparatus, and the 
numerous details of laboratory equipment to the needs and finances 
of a particular school, are matters requiring some technical knowl- 
edge, and the writer of this article will be glad to render any assist- 
ance within his power in advising concerning the purchase of equip- 
ment. 

The following Chemical Set has been arranged by a prominent profes- 
sor of chemistry according to the latest and best textbooks, and is sold 
by the Central Scientific Company, Chicago. The chemicals are all 
placed in bottles. 



98 



Hicn School Manual. 



Chemical Set No. 1, F. 

Acid Acetic. 
Acid Hydrochloric. 
Acid Nitric. 
Acid Sulphuric. 
Acid Oxalic. 
Acid Tartaric. 
Ammonium Chloride. 
Ammonium Hydrate. 
Ammonium Nitrate. 
Ammonium Sulphide. 
Animal Charcoal. 
Antimony. 
Arsenic Trioxide. 
Alum. 

Alcohol Methyl. 
Barium Chloride. 
Barium Nitrate. 
Calcium Carbonate (mar- 
ble). 
Calcium Fluoride. 
Calcium Sulphate. 
Carbon Bisulphide. 
Charcoal (lumps). 
Copper Sulphate. 
Ether. 

Ferrous Sulphide. 
Ferrous Sulphate. 
Gall Nuts (powdered). 

Beakers, nest of 3 (3 to 8 oz.). 
Blow Pipe, plain. 8 inch. 
Bottle, W . ML, 4 oz. 
Bottle, \V. M.. 8 oz. 
Corks. 1 dozen, assorted. 
Crucibles, Hessian, nest, small 5's. 
Deflagrating Spoon, iron, J inch. 
1 )ish, Evaporating, _' oz. 
Dish. Lead, 3 inch. 
File, Triangular, 4 inch. 
Filter Paper, 1 pkg., 4 inch. 
Flask, F. B., 4 oz. 
Flask, F. B., 8 oz. 
Funnel, glass, 2\ inch. 

The first half of Smith & Hall's 
Physics (Longmans) is devoted to 
ary school. 



4 


oz. 


1 


lb. 


1 


lb. 


2 


lbs 


1 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


2 


oz. 


8 


oz. 


1 


oz 


1 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


8 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


2 


oz. 


2 


oz. 


4 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


1 


oz. 


2 


oz. 


2 


oz. 


8 


oz. 


2 


oz. 


i 


oz. 



O. B. Chicago, $13.50. 

i oz. Gun Cotton. 

1 oz. Iodine. 

2 oz. Galena. 

1 oz. Lead Acetate. 

1 oz. Lead Oxide (red). 
•} oz. Litmus. 

4 oz. Mercury. 

12 in. Magnesium Ribbon. 

2 oz. Magnesium Sulphate. 

1 lb. Manganese Dioxide (pwd). 
6 in. Platinum Wire. 

•} oz. Phosphorus. 

J oz. Potassium (metallic). 

2 oz. Potassium Bichromate. 

1 oz. Potassium Bromide. 

2 oz. Potassium Chlorate. 

2 oz. Potassium Ferrocyanide. 

1 oz. Potassium Hydrate (sticks) 

1 oz. Potassium Nitrate. 

1 oz. Strontium Nitrate. 

4 oz. Sulphur Roll. 

h oz. Silver Nitrate. 

I oz. Sodium ( metallic I. 

1 oz. Sodium Biborate. 

2 oz. Sodium Carbonate. 
2 oz. Sodium Sulphate. 

8 oz. Zinc for making Hydrogen. 

Jar. Specie, for deflagration, qt. 
Gas Generating Flask, pint. 
Glass Tubing 1 lb., ! inch. 
Graduate, conical, 60 c. c. 

Lam]). Alcohol, 4 oz. 
Mortar. Wedgewood, 2'\ inch. 
Pipette, long bulb, small. 
Retort, glass, plain. 4 oz. 
Rubber Tubing, 6 ft., 3-16 inch. 
Sand Bath, 4 inch. 
Test Tubes. 1 dozen, assorted. 
Test Tube Brush, sponge end. 
Test Tube Holder, wood. 

The Teaching of Chemistry and 
teaching chemistry in the second- 



High School Manual. 99 



AGRICULTURE. 



Thirty years ago nothing was more thoroughly ridiculed than 
"book farming" and "book farmers." Today throughout the coun- 
try there is an urgent and impatient demand for the teaching of 
agriculture in all the schools. One extreme has given place to 
another. In time the happy mean will be found, but in the mean- 
time we are in danger of wasting money, time and labor on unprofit- 
able experiments. 

I am firm in my conviction that it would be a fatal mistake for the 
people of this State to establish separate high schools for the teach- 
ing of agriculture. To do so would be to divorce cultural training 
from vocational training, instead of marrying them more closely. 
To establish independent agricultural high schools would mean a 
dual system to be supported, whereas we are not properly supporting 
one system. One kind of high school for one class of people and 
another kind for another class would be undemocratic. Our need is 
agricultural courses in the high schools, but not separate agricultural 
high schools. 

Agriculture is not a science, but "an art dependent upon a great 
many sciences." The high school may profitably teach a number of 
these basic sciences, such as botany, physics, chemistry, and zoology. 
The botany of the farm is an adaptation of general botany ; so are 
the physics, the chemistry^ and the zoology of the farm. 

The recognition of a few axiomatic truths, the strict observance 
of a few fundamentals, and the exercise of some judgment and 
initiative ought to result in teaching of permanent value to the agri- 
cultural interests of the State. 

1. Any agricultural course to be effective must be set in a strong 
academic background. No other people need broader intellectual 
training, in addition to any vocational training, than do the agricul- 
tural people of today. The mere technique of farming is but a 
<mall part of the successful farmer's equipment. The modern 
farmer needs to be a well-educated and well-rounded business man 
on the farm. 



100 High School Manual. 

2. A course in agriculture should run through three or four years 
of the high school, just as English and mathematics run through 
three or four years. To put a single book on general agriculture 
into a high school for a single year can not bring satisfactory results. 
It requires time to accomplish results worth the effort. 

3. Into the high school course do not introduce the nature study 
as carried on in the elementary school. Students will at once recog- 
nize the fact that they are at child's work. On the other hand, do not 
bring down from the college course subjects which properly belong 
there and which can not be handled in the high school. Both these 
mistakes have been made in our so-called agricultural teaching. 

4. It would be a great mistake to require all pupils, even in a rural 
agricultural community, to take the agricultural course, just as it 
would be a mistake to require all to take ancient languages, modern 
languages, or science. 

5. None but competent teachers need hope to succeed in teaching a 
course in agriculture. A man must know English, or history, or 
mathematics, before he can hope to teach either. Why should he 
hope to teach agriculture, if unprepared? A wide-awake, intelligent 
teacher who knows his subjects, can see the needs and opportunities 
of his patrons, and can adapt his teaching to their needs has it in his 
power to succeed beyond question in teaching agriculture. 

6. The teaching of agriculture must be carried to the farmers by 
means of actual demonstration. The high school with an agricul- 
tural course does not need more than a very small plot of school 
ground, if any, for its demonstration work. The surrounding farms 
should be the places for demonstration work. In this way the agri- 
culture is carried to the farmer himself as well as to his children. 
Agricultural teaching not worthy of the respect and co-operation of 
the farmers in the neighborhood of the school is not worth spending 
time and money upon. 

7. Not every high school with an agricultural course should direct 
its attention and energies toward the same thing. In one community 
the agricultural teaching might be focused upon trucking, in another 
upon dairying, in another upon poultry raising, in another upon berry 
growing, or whatever else the soil and the markets suggest. Remem- 
ber that if an agricultural school ofany type does not make the corn 
field, the potato patch, the hog lot. and the chicken yard pay for 



High School Manual. 101 

their maintenance, the school is to that degree a failure, and should 
not continue to attempt to delude young people into taking up farm 
life. 

Teachers contemplating the organization of high school courses in 
agriculture are advised to study Bricker's The Teaching of Agricul- 
ture in the High School. Macmillan. 



102 



High School Manual. 



STANDARD HIGH SCHOOL UNITS. 



SUBJECT 



English 



Mathematics 1 
2 

3 

4 
5 
6 



TOPICS 



Higher English Grammar and Grammatical Analysis. 

English Composition and Rhetoric 

Critical Study of Specimens of English Literature 



Algebra to Quadratic Equations 

Algebra — Quadratics, Progression, and Binominal Theorem. . 
Advanced Algebra, including Permutations and Combinations 

Determinants and Numerical Equations 

Plane Geometry 

Solid Geometry 

Plane Trigonometry 



UNITS 



Grammar and Composition, or First Book 

Caesar, Book I-1V 

Six Orations of Cicero 

Vergil's -Eneid. first six books 

Cornelius Nepos, first fifteen Lives, or equivalent in Ovid. 



History 



Science 



Greek 



French 



Drawing 



Greek and Roman History 

Medieval and Modern History 

English History 

American History and Civics.. 



Physiography, with field and laboratory work 

Experimental Physics 

Physiology, with laboratory work 

Inorganic Chemistry, with laboratory work. . 

Botany, with laboratory work 

Zoology ' 

Commercial Geography (Robinson) 



Grammar and Composition 

Xenophon's Anabasis, Books [-IV 



Half of Elementary Grammar, and 75 paces reading 

Elementary Grammar completed, and 150 pages reading. 



Half of Elementary Grammar, and too pages reading 

Elementary Grammar completed, and 200 pages reading. 



Mechanical and Projection Drawing 



The minimum time in which one unit of work may be done is five 
weekly recitations of 40 minutes each for 36 weeks, or a minimum 
total of 120 hours of 60 minutes. 















It 




LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



019 745 229 8 





